Changes

In 1965 there was a coup (rebellion) attempt in Indonesia, and General Suharto brutally suppressed it, killing perhaps a million people including many communists.  In this striking battle between Islam and communism, Islam won.  In 1967, Suharto appointed himself president and created a police state.  He persecuted the Chinese and Christians, and in 1976 he seized East Timor and annexed it to Indonesia.   

In 1965 there was a coup (rebellion) attempt in Indonesia, and General Suharto brutally suppressed it, killing perhaps a million people including many communists.  In this striking battle between Islam and communism, Islam won.  In 1967, Suharto appointed himself president and created a police state.  He persecuted the Chinese and Christians, and in 1976 he seized East Timor and annexed it to Indonesia.   

In addition to the British and Dutch, the United States also granted independence to its Asian colony:  the Philippines (on July 4, 1946).  The United States kept military bases on the Philippines under 99-year leases, but later gave up those leases under criticism of being imperialistic.  America left her bases there in 1991.

In addition to the British and Dutch, the United States also granted independence to its Asian colony:  the Philippines (on July 4, 1946).  The United States kept military bases on the Philippines under 99-year leases, but later gave up those leases under criticism of being imperialistic.  The U.S. left her bases there in 1991.

The Philippines has a history of communist insurgency, and President Ferdinand Marcos suppressed the communists during his rule from 1966 to 1986.  For ten years during that period he even imposed martial law.  But when Benigno Aquino, a political opponent of Marcos, was immediately assassinated upon his return to the country from the United States, American newspapers blamed Marcos for the killing and demanded his resignation.  He would not resign; however, Aquino’s widow Corazon Aquino defeated Marcos in the election of 1986.  Time magazine named her 'Woman of the Year,' and Marcos fled to Hawaii, where he eventually died.  Marcos’ wife, Imelda Marcos, was then put on trial by the United States prosecutor in New York City for allegedly stealing from the Philippines people.  She was acquitted.

The Philippines has a history of communist insurgency, and President Ferdinand Marcos suppressed the communists during his rule from 1966 to 1986.  For ten years during that period he even imposed martial law.  But when Benigno Aquino, a political opponent of Marcos, was immediately assassinated upon his return to the country from the United States, American newspapers blamed Marcos for the killing and demanded his resignation.  He would not resign; however, Aquino’s widow Corazon Aquino defeated Marcos in the election of 1986.  Time magazine named her 'Woman of the Year,' and Marcos fled to Hawaii, where he eventually died.

 

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in office in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992.  Term limits of one term only prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

=== Africa ===

=== Africa ===

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

==== British Colonies – Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana ====

Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

'''Great Britain had three large African colonies:  Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana'''.  Nigeria was most populous colony in Africa and one of the most prosperous, and it won its independence in 1960.  But its ethnic diversity led to civil war between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani and the Christian (and animist) Igbo and Yoruba.  There was tension even within the Christian groups, as Igbo preferred a democratic society while the Yoruba preferred a monarchy.

 

Millions of Igbo died during a war over an attempt by non-Yoruba minorities to secede.  Secession occurred in 1967 to establish a new country of Biafra, but reunification occurred in 1970.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria and it joined OPEC.  But the Muslim Hausa-Fulani seized power in 1983 and ruled for 16 years, discriminating against the Christians.  In 1999, a civilian government was reestablished pursuant to a new constitution.

Oil was discovered in Nigeria and it joined OPEC.  But the Muslim Hausa-Fulani seized power in 1983 and ruled for 16 years, discriminating against the Christians.  In 1999, a civilian government was reestablished pursuant to a new constitution.

==== French colony – Algeria ====

==== French colony – Algeria ====

France had many small colonies in Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia, to which France granted independence in 1956.  But France’s primary colony was Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa.  Instead of granting it independence, France offered citizenship to all the Algerians, which partly explains why the Muslim population in France is larger than in other European countries today.

France had many small colonies in Africa, including Morocco and Tunisia, to which France granted independence in 1956.  But '''France’s primary colony was Algeria, a Muslim country in North Africa'''.  Instead of granting it independence, France offered citizenship to all the Algerians, which explains why the Muslim population in France is larger than in other European countries today.

The Algerians wanted independence despite the presence of thousands of French citizens in Algeria.  In 1945, there was a bloody demonstration for independence, and in 1954 the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) demanded full independence.  The French responded by sending troops to suppress the FLN.

The Algerians wanted independence despite the presence of thousands of French citizens in Algeria.  In 1945, there was a bloody demonstration for independence, and in 1954 the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) demanded full independence.  The French responded by sending troops to suppress the FLN.

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

==== Belgium colony - Congo ====

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy by the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Belgium held the Congo as an African colony for mining copper and producing rubber.  When Belgium granted Congo its independence in 1960 and Patrice Lumumba was sworn in its its first prime minister, the young nation was unprepared.  Moise Tshombe, a leader of southeast region that had the copper mines, announced its separate independence.  Tshombe was backed by Belgians interested in the copper, while Lumumba was supported by the communist Soviet Union.  Joseph Mobutu, with sympathy from the West, then overthrew Lumumba, who was then murdered.  Tshombe ruled for a short period until he, too, was overthrown by Mobutu.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

Mobutu renamed the nation Zaire, and ruled it for 32 years.  He personally accumulated enormous wealth from the nation, until he was deposed (overthrown) by Laurent Kabila in 1997.  Kabila then changed the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.  The neighboring countries of Rwanda and Uganda supported an insurrection in 1998, and a civil war resulted between the pro-Kabila Hutu tribe and the anti-Kabila Tutsi tribe.  As more African nations became involved in this conflict in Central Africa, it began to look like the first all-African war.  The United Nations sent peacekeeping troops in February 2000 and a cease-fire was declared later that year.

==== Portuguese colony - Angola ====

==== Portuguese colony - Angola ====

Portugal suppressed independence movements in its colony of Angola until 1975, when opposition to the continuing expenses caused an overthrow of the government in the mother country of Portugal itself.  Once free, three different revolutionary groups fought each other for control of Angola:  (1) the communist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which grabbed the Angolan capital city of Luanda, (2) the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by Zaire and the United States, and (3) the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) which was aided by South Africa and the United States.  Peace was not achieved until 1988 and only then did the communist Cuban troops leave.  All three groups continue to seek representation in the Angolan government.

Portugal suppressed independence movements in '''its colony of Angola''' until 1975, when opposition to the continuing expenses caused an overthrow of the government in the mother country of Portugal itself.  Once free, three different revolutionary groups fought each other for control of Angola:  (1) the communist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which grabbed the Angolan capital city of Luanda, (2) the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was supported by Zaire and the United States, and (3) the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) which was aided by South Africa and the United States.  Peace was not achieved until 1988 and only then did the communist Cuban troops leave.  All three groups continue to seek representation in the Angolan government.

==== Dutch and British colony – South Africa ====

==== Dutch and British colony – South Africa ====

There was increasing pressure worldwide for South Africa to end its racism.  Its athletes were banned from the Olympics since the 1960s, and trade restrictions were imposed by other nations.  A black South African bishop, Desmond Tutu, called for boycotts of his own nation.

There was increasing pressure worldwide for South Africa to end its racism.  Its athletes were banned from the Olympics since the 1960s, and trade restrictions were imposed by other nations.  A black South African bishop, Desmond Tutu, called for boycotts of his own nation.

Finally, in 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected. He would change the country.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, and obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, though it also included entitlement and social rights.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it will host the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.  But while the outside world accepts South Africa, the country has been hurt by a mass exodus based on a fear of crime and opposition to race-based hiring rules.  "We as a nation cannot afford to lose skilled and hard-working citizens of whatever hue," declared one South African candidate for high office in 2006.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5412892.stm</ref>

In 1989, a new South African president named F.W. de Klerk was elected, and he ended apartheid.  With international approval, de Klerk legalized the ANC, released Nelson Mandela from jail, obtained repeal of apartheid laws, and agreed to fully democratic elections in 1994.  Nelson Mandela then won those elections and the ANC won a majority in the National Assembly, the bigger house in the South African Parliament.  A new constitution containing a bill of rights like that in the United States was adopted in 1996, though it also included entitlement and social rights.  The world fully accepts South Africa now, and it hosted the World Cup (soccer) in 2010.  But while the outside world accepts South Africa, the country has been hurt by a mass exodus due to increased crime.  "We as a nation cannot afford to lose skilled and hard-working citizens of whatever hue," declared one South African candidate for high office in 2006.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5412892.stm</ref>

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

==== British, French and Italian colony - Somalia ====

Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser as ruler of Egypt, and in October 1973, Sadat launched a surprise attack on Israel on its holy day, Yom Kippur.  After suffering massive initial losses, the Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir, regained much of the lost territory.  Golda Meir was the third women in history to run a nation, and David Ben-Gurion once described her as “the only man in the Cabinet” of Israel.  However, she was forced to resign the following year based on criticism of how she handled the war.  Winston Churchill also lost power as soon as World War II was over.  Maybe voters simply wanted to replace someone who reminded them of the bad memories of war.

Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser as ruler of Egypt, and in October 1973, Sadat launched a surprise attack on Israel on its holy day, Yom Kippur.  After suffering massive initial losses, the Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir, regained much of the lost territory.  Golda Meir was the third women in history to run a nation, and David Ben-Gurion once described her as “the only man in the Cabinet” of Israel.  However, she was forced to resign the following year based on criticism of how she handled the war.  Winston Churchill also lost power as soon as World War II was over.  Maybe voters simply wanted to replace someone who reminded them of the bad memories of war.

In 1979 President Jimmy Carter brokered a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, then led by Menachem Begin, and this deal is known as the Camp David Accords.  Egypt agreed to recognize Israel in exchange for receiving return of the Sinai Peninsula.  The United States promised both countries a massive amount of foreign aid, about $10 billion each year in gifts to each nation, to complete the deal.  Though Sadat was assassinated by Muslims in 1981, his successor (Hosni Mubarak) promised to continue to honor the deal.

In 1979 President Jimmy Carter brokered a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, then led by Menachem Begin, and this deal is known as the Camp David Accords.  Egypt agreed to recognize Israel in exchange for receiving return of the Sinai Peninsula.  The United States promised both countries a massive amount of foreign aid, about $10 billion each year in gifts to each nation, to complete the deal.  Though Sadat was assassinated by Muslims in 1981, his successor (Hosni Mubarak) promised to continue to honor the deal.  Mubarak was overthrown in 2011.

Yasir Arafat, a former construction engineer, founded the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964, and it demanded a Palestinian state in the area of Jerusalem and rejected the right of Israel to exist.  In the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, PLO terrorists kidnapped and murdered Israeli athletes in front of the entire world watching those games.  In 1987, the PLO instituted a campaign of persistent violence called “intifada”, where common citizens and even children would throw stones at Israelis and commit other forms of violence.  Meanwhile, Arab nations boycotted Israeli goods and even attempted to boycott any company that did business with Israel.   

Yasir Arafat, a former construction engineer, founded the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964.  It demanded a Palestinian state in the area of Jerusalem and rejected the right of Israel to exist.  During the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, PLO terrorists kidnapped and murdered Israeli athletes.  In 1987, the PLO instituted a campaign of persistent violence called “intifada”, where common citizens and even children threw stones at Israelis and committed additional violence.  Arab nations boycotted Israeli goods and even attempted to boycott any company that did business with Israel.   

Secret talks between Israeli leaders and the PLO in Oslo, Norway culminated with the Declaration of Principles in 1993, whereby Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin agreed to allow Palestinian self-rule over two strips of land known as the Gaza Strip and West Bank, and Arafat and Rabin signed the agreement in front of President Clinton at the White House in 1993.  This angered orthodox Jewish Israelis who had been building settlements in both regions, and one assassinated Rabin in 1995.  A more conservative leader emerged in Israel named Benjamin Netanyahu, who negotiated a partial withdrawal by Israeli settlers from Hebron, which is on the West Bank, in 1997.  In 2005, Israel removed its settlements from the Gaza Strip, and there is a quasi-Palestinian state called the Palestinian National Authority that functions under Arafat’s successor, Mahmoud Abbas.

Secret talks between Israeli leaders and the PLO in Oslo, Norway culminated with the Declaration of Principles in 1993, whereby Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin agreed to allow Palestinian self-rule over two strips of land known as the Gaza Strip and West Bank, and Arafat and Rabin signed the agreement in front of President Clinton at the White House in 1993.  This angered orthodox Jewish Israelis who had been building settlements in both regions, and one assassinated Rabin in 1995.  A more conservative leader emerged in Israel named Benjamin Netanyahu, who negotiated a partial withdrawal by Israeli settlers from Hebron, which is on the West Bank, in 1997.  In 2005, Israel removed its settlements from the Gaza Strip, and there is a quasi-Palestinian state called the Palestinian National Authority that functions under Arafat’s successor, Mahmoud Abbas.