Changes

[[Image:Moooghj.jpg|300px|right]]'''Stars''' are extremely large, luminous bodies of gas. They are the most obvious features found in the [[universe]]. They are principally composed of [[hydrogen]] that is undergoing nuclear [[fusion]] to become [[helium]]. Our sun, ([[Sol]]), is the nearest star to Earth, at a distance averaging 93 million miles. The Earth orbits the sun in a period of approximately 365.25 days, and this defines the [[year]]. The diameter of the sun, which is a typical star, is about 870,000 miles and its power output is about 10²⁶ watts. The temperature inside the sun is estimated to be in excess of ten million degrees, and this is hot enough for [[nuclear fusion|nuclear reactions]] to occur.

[[Image:Moooghj.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The [[Sun]] is our nearest star and is much larger than the [[Earth]], which is shown for comparison.]]'''Stars''' are extremely large, luminous bodies of gas. They are the most obvious features found in the [[universe]]. They are principally composed of [[hydrogen]] that is undergoing nuclear [[fusion]] to become [[helium]]. Our sun, ([[Sol]]), is the nearest star to Earth, at a distance averaging 93 million miles. The Earth orbits the sun in a period of approximately 365.25 days, and this defines the [[year]]. The diameter of the sun, which is a typical star, is about 870,000 miles and its power output is about 10²⁶ watts. The temperature inside the sun is estimated to be in excess of ten million degrees, and this is hot enough for [[nuclear fusion|nuclear reactions]] to occur.

In Genesis, the stars were made in the fourth day,<ref>[Genesis 1-8 (Translated)|Gen 1:14]</ref> and their number is compared to the number of descendants of Abraham.<ref>[Genesis 9-16 (Translated)|Gen 15:5]; an earlier count of the number of descendants of Abraham was the number of grains of dust of the Earth (Gen 13:16)</ref>

In Genesis, the stars were made in the fourth day,<ref>[[Genesis 1-8 (Translated)|Gen 1:14]]</ref> and their number is compared to the number of descendants of Abraham.<ref>[[Genesis 9-16 (Translated)|Gen 15:5]]; an earlier count of the number of descendants of Abraham was the number of grains of dust of the Earth (Gen 13:16)</ref>

The [[Bible]] implies that the number of stars is virtually countless,<ref>[Jeremiah 27-34 (Translated)|Jeremiah 33:22]; similarly to Genesis, the number of descendants of David is compared to the number of stars and the number of grains of sand</ref> but for many years this was not accepted. Hipparchus in 128 B.C. stated there were 1,026 stars in the sky. [[Kepler]] in 1600 A.D. did his own count and found the number to be 1,005. Today, thanks to telescopes (especially the [[Hubble Telescope]]) showing many stars previously too dim to be seen, we are now aware of some 70,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (7×10²⁵) stars.<ref>[https://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/07/22/stars.survey Star survey reaches 70 sextillion]</ref>

The [[Bible]] implies that the number of stars is virtually countless,<ref>[[Jeremiah 27-34 (Translated)|Jeremiah 33:22]]; similarly to Genesis, the number of descendants of David is compared to the number of stars and the number of grains of sand</ref> but for many years this was not accepted. Hipparchus in 128 B.C. stated there were 1,026 stars in the sky. [[Kepler]] in 1600 A.D. did his own count and found the number to be 1,005. Today, thanks to telescopes (especially the [[Hubble Telescope]]) showing many stars previously too dim to be seen, we are now aware of some 70,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (7×10²⁵) stars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/07/22/stars.survey|title=Star survey reaches 70 sextillion|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref>

==Measuring stellar positions==

==Measuring stellar positions==

=== Distances ===

=== Distances ===

The oldest method of measuring the distance from our solar system to a distant star is the parallax method. To use this method, astronomers measure the right ascension on the sky of the star at two times of the year, half a year apart. The two measurements will differ by a small angle with respect to the most distant stars in that region of the sky. Exactly half this angle is the ''parallax angle'', having symbol ''p''. This is the angle that the star makes with the [[sun]] and the position of the [[earth]] at a right angle with that star.<ref name=Britannica3>"[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-52809/star Star: Determining stellar distances]." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed 21 Apr. 2008</ref> The distance s of the star, in astronomical units (AU), is:

The oldest method of measuring the distance from our solar system to a distant star is the parallax method. To use this method, astronomers measure the right ascension on the sky of the star at two times of the year, half a year apart. The two measurements will differ by a small angle with respect to the most distant stars in that region of the sky. Exactly half this angle is the ''parallax angle'', having symbol ''p''. This is the angle that the star makes with the [[sun]] and the position of the [[earth]] at a right angle with that star.<ref name=Britannica3>"[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-52809/star Star: Determining stellar distances]." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed 24 Jan. 2019</ref> The distance s of the star, in astronomical units (AU), is:

<math>\,\!s = \cot p</math>

:<math>s = \cot p</math>

In the range of the very small angles typically encountered, the cotangent of the angle measure (in radians) is very nearly equal to the reciprocal, and thus:

In the range of the very small angles typically encountered, the cotangent of the angle measure (in radians) is very nearly equal to the reciprocal, and thus:

<math>\,\!s \approx \frac {180 \times 3600}{p \times \pi}</math>

:<math>s \approx \frac {180 \times 3600}{p \times \pi}</math>

where p is measured in seconds of arc.

where p is measured in seconds of arc.

The cotangent of one second (1/3600 of a degree) of arc is approximately 206,264.81. No parallax angle for any star will be larger than one second. Therefore, astronomers initially defined a unit of stellar distance, the ''[[parsec]]'' (symbol pc), from this relationship. One parsec is the distance corresponding to a parallax angle of one second of arc. Hence:

The cotangent of one second (1/3600 of a degree) of arc is approximately 206,264.81. No parallax angle for any star will be larger than one second. Therefore, astronomers initially defined a unit of stellar distance, the ''[[parsec]]'' (symbol pc), from this relationship. One parsec is the distance corresponding to a parallax angle of one second of arc. Hence:

<math>1 pc \approx 206,264.81 AU</math>

:<math>1 \, \mathrm{pc} \approx 206,264.81 \, \mathrm{AU}</math>

However, the error of measurement of parallax angle is 0.005 arc seconds, and beyond a distance of 100 parsecs, this error becomes significant. 700 stars are near enough to measure their distances directly by using parallax.<ref name=Britannica3/> To measure distances further out than this, astronomers typically use absolute and relative magnitudes, or they apply [[Hubble Law|Hubble's Law]] to the star's estimated [[redshift]].

However, the error of measurement of parallax angle is 0.005 arc seconds, and beyond a distance of 100 parsecs, this error becomes significant. 700 stars are near enough to measure their distances directly by using parallax.<ref name=Britannica3/> To measure distances further out than this, astronomers typically use absolute and relative magnitudes, or they apply [[Hubble Law|Hubble's Law]] to the star's estimated [[redshift]].

=== Positions in sky ===

=== Positions in sky ===

The most common system for describing the position of a star in the sky is the equatorial system. This system uses two coordinates:

The most common system for describing the position of a star in the sky is the equatorial system. This system uses two coordinates:

# Right ascension on the sky, or the number of hours required for the earth to rotate before an observer can see the star at its highest point in the sky. The zero for right ascension is midnight on the day of the vernal equinox.<ref name=WeissteinRA>Weisstein, Eric W. "[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/RightAscension.html Right Ascension]." ''Eric Weisstein's World of Astronomy'', 2007. Accessed April 21, 2008.</ref>

# Right ascension on the sky, or the number of hours required for the earth to rotate before an observer can see the star at its highest point in the sky. The zero for right ascension is midnight on the day of the vernal equinox.<ref name=WeissteinRA>Weisstein, Eric W. "[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/RightAscension.html Right Ascension]." ''Eric Weisstein's World of Astronomy'', 2007. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref>

# Declination, or the north-south angle between the star and the celestial equator.<ref name=WeissteinD>Weisstein, Eric W. "[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/Declination.html Declination]." ''Eric Weisstein's World of Astronomy'', 2007. Accessed April 21, 2008.</ref>

# Declination, or the north-south angle between the star and the celestial equator.<ref name=WeissteinD>Weisstein, Eric W. "[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/Declination.html Declination]." ''Eric Weisstein's World of Astronomy'', 2007. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref>

===Proper motion===

===Proper motion===

== Measuring stellar magnitudes ==

== Measuring stellar magnitudes ==

The visual magnitude system is defined as follows: a star of any given magnitude is about 2.512 times as bright as is a star of the next magnitude. [[Hipparchus]] devised the magnitude system, and [[Ptolemy]] refined it further. By convention, an arbitrary sample of the twenty brightest stars that they could observe were assigned to the first magnitude, and the stars that they could barely observe were assigned to the sixth. Sixth-magnitude stars are actually 100 times less bright than first-magnitude stars. Magnitude levels between these extremes are assigned on a logarithmic scale. Thus, given two stars of brightness l₁ and l₂, their magnitude difference (V₂ - V₁) relates to their respective brightnesses in this way:<ref name=Haworth>Haworth, David. "[http://www.stargazing.net/david/constel/magnitude.html Star Magnitudes]." ''[http://www.stargazing.net/david/index.html Observational Astronomy]'', 2003. Accessed April 21, 2008.</ref>

The visual magnitude system is defined as follows: a star of any given magnitude is about 2.512 times as bright as is a star of the next magnitude. [[Hipparchus]] devised the magnitude system, and [[Ptolemy]] refined it further. By convention, an arbitrary sample of the twenty brightest stars that they could observe were assigned to the first magnitude, and the stars that they could barely observe were assigned to the sixth. Sixth-magnitude stars are actually 100 times less bright than first-magnitude stars. Magnitude levels between these extremes are assigned on a logarithmic scale. Thus, given two stars of brightness l₁ and l₂, their magnitude difference (V₂ - V₁) relates to their respective brightnesses in this way:<ref name=Haworth>Haworth, David. "[http://www.stargazing.net/david/constel/magnitude.html Star Magnitudes]." ''[http://www.stargazing.net/david/index.html Observational Astronomy]'', 2003. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref>

<math>\,\!V_2 - V_1 = 2.5 \times \log \frac{l_1}{l_2}</math>

:<math>V_2 - V_1 = 2.5 \times \log \frac{l_1}{l_2}</math>

The ''absolute'' magnitude of any star is the visual magnitude that it would have if it were ten parsecs distant. To convert apparent magnitude V to actual magnitude M, use this formula:

The ''absolute'' magnitude of any star is the visual magnitude that it would have if it were ten parsecs distant. To convert apparent magnitude V to actual magnitude M, use this formula:

<math>\,\!M = V + 5 \times \log \frac{s_0}{s}</math>

:<math>M = V + 5 \times \log \frac{s_0}{s}</math>

where s₀ is the standard distance. This distance is ten [[parsec]]s, or about 2,062,650 AU.

where s₀ is the standard distance. This distance is ten [[parsec]]s, or about 2,062,650 AU.

Brightness declines with the square of distance, and squares correspond to doubling of logarithms. One must then multiply that result by 2.5 to stay within the magnitude scale.

Brightness declines with the square of distance, and squares correspond to doubling of [[logarithm]]s. One must then multiply that result by 2.5 to stay within the magnitude scale.

== Stellar colors and spectra ==

== Stellar colors and spectra ==

=== Spectral Type ===

=== Spectral Type ===

[[Image:Hertzsprung-Russell.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram]]

[[Image:Hertzsprung-Russell.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram]]

In the late nineteenth century, astronomers at the [[Harvard University]] observatory developed the first classification scheme for stellar spectra that would become known as the '''Harvard spectral classification'''. In 1924, Annie Jump Cannon<ref name=Cannon>"[http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/lifecycles/LC_main_p8.html Life Cycles of Stars]." ''Goddard Space Flight Center'', November 21, 2002. Accessed April 22, 2008.</ref> refined the classification from the original A-Q gamut to the familiar "OBAFGKM" gamut. Astronomers have since added classes to this range at the high end and the low.<ref name=Swinburne>"[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/H/Harvard+Spectral+Classification Harvard Spectral Classification]." ''Study Astronomy Online at Swinburne University''. Accessed April 22, 2008.</ref><ref name=Seattle>Irizarry, David. "[http://www.seattleastro.org/webfoot/feb00/pg2.htm The Secrets of the Harvard Classification Revealed]." ''The Webfooted Astronomer'', Seattle Astronomical Society, February 2000. Accessed April 22, 2008.</ref>

In the late nineteenth century, astronomers at the [[Harvard University]] observatory developed the first classification scheme for stellar spectra that would become known as the '''Harvard spectral classification'''. In 1924, Annie Jump Cannon<ref name=Cannon>"[https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/lifecycles/LC_main_p8.html Life Cycles of Stars]." ''Goddard Space Flight Center'', November 21, 2002. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref> refined the classification from the original A-Q gamut to the familiar "OBAFGKM" gamut. Astronomers have since added classes to this range at the high end and the low.<ref name=Swinburne>"[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/H/Harvard+Spectral+Classification Harvard Spectral Classification]." ''Study Astronomy Online at Swinburne University''. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref><ref name=Seattle>Irizarry, David. "[http://www.seattleastro.org/webfoot/feb00/pg2.htm The Secrets of the Harvard Classification Revealed]." ''The Webfooted Astronomer'', Seattle Astronomical Society, February 2000. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref>

The classic Harvard spectral classes are O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. Each of these has ten subclasses, varying from 0 to 9 in order of decreasing stellar temperature. Thus, for example, the next class after an F9 star is a G0 star. Recently astronomers recognized one class of stars hotter than the O stars (the very hot Wolf-Rayet stars) and three classes of stars (the N, R, and S stars) cooler than the M stars. (Some astronomers include the N and R stars in one class, the C stars, for the carbon compounds that their spectra exhibit).  There is an additional spectral class for the smallest and dimmest stars (Class L), that still fuse hydrogen, although warmer [[brown dwarf]]s also fall into this class (but referred to as L dwarfs instead of L stars). Cooler still methane dwarfs are classified as [[Brown dwarf#Spectral class T|T dwarfs]].<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007arXiv0704.1522K</ref>  A proposed spectral class Y has been suggested for the coolest brown dwarfs, which also have a different spectra from T class dwarfs.<ref>http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/astro-ph/0607305</ref>

The classic Harvard spectral classes are O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. Each of these has ten subclasses, varying from 0 to 9 in order of decreasing stellar temperature. Thus, for example, the next class after an F9 star is a G0 star. Recently astronomers recognized one class of stars hotter than the O stars (the very hot Wolf-Rayet stars) and three classes of stars (the N, R, and S stars) cooler than the M stars. (Some astronomers include the N and R stars in one class, the C stars, for the carbon compounds that their spectra exhibit).  There is an additional spectral class for the smallest and dimmest stars (Class L), that still fuse hydrogen, although warmer [[brown dwarf]]s also fall into this class (but referred to as L dwarfs instead of L stars). Cooler still methane dwarfs are classified as [[Brown dwarf#Spectral class T|T dwarfs]].<ref>Kirkpatrick, J. (2008). Outstanding Issues in Our Understanding of L, T, and Y Dwarfs. In 14th Cambridge Workshop on Cool Stars, Stellar Systems, and the Sun. ''Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series'', 384, p.85. [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2008ASPC..384...85K/abstract Bibcode:2008ASPC..384...85K] [https://arxiv.org/abs/0704.1522 <nowiki>arXiv:0704.1522 [astro-ph]</nowiki>]</ref>  A proposed spectral class Y has been suggested for the coolest brown dwarfs, which also have a different spectra from T class dwarfs.<ref>Deacon, N. and Hambly, N. (2006). The possiblity of detection of ultracool dwarfs with the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey. ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', 371(4), pp.1722-1730. [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/2006MNRAS.371.1722D/abstract Bibcode:2006MNRAS.371.1722D] [https://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/astro-ph/0607305 arXiv:astro-ph/0607305]</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

| Yellow

| Yellow

| [[Calcium]], [[hydrogen]], other [[metal]]s

| [[Calcium]], [[hydrogen]], other [[metal]]s

| Balmer lines weaker still. K lines dominant. Metals now appearing. Contains the sun.<ref>http://www.astrometry.org/starclassification.php

| Balmer lines weaker still. K lines dominant. Metals now appearing. Contains the sun.

 

|-

|-

| K

| K

|}

|}

In the early twentieth century, astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell prepared the first plot of stellar temperature as a function of luminosity, or brightness. Other astronomers have since prepared versions of the diagram showing absolute magnitude as a function of color. This diagram shows a "main sequence" of stars for which brightness declines as temperature increases, but also shows a "white dwarf" population of very hot but dim stars, and the population of giants and supergiants that are far brighter than their temperatures would indicate.<ref name=HR>"[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/H/Hertzsprung-Russell+Diagram Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram]." ''Study Astronomy Online at Swinburne University''. Accessed April 22, 2008.</ref>

In the early twentieth century, astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell prepared the first plot of stellar temperature as a function of luminosity, or brightness. Other astronomers have since prepared versions of the diagram showing absolute magnitude as a function of color. This diagram shows a "main sequence" of stars for which brightness declines as temperature increases, but also shows a "white dwarf" population of very hot but dim stars, and the population of giants and supergiants that are far brighter than their temperatures would indicate.<ref name=HR>"[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/H/Hertzsprung-Russell+Diagram Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram]." ''Study Astronomy Online at Swinburne University''. Accessed January 24, 2019.</ref>

===Luminosity Class===

===Luminosity Class===

In addition to the spectral type, astronomers today add a ''luminosity class'', which varies from 0 to VII in order of decreasing brightness. This is known as the '''Yerkes spectral classification'''.  This classification was first developed by astronomers William Wilson Morgan, Phillip C. Keenan and Edith Kellman at the [[Yerkes Observatory]] in 1943.<ref>Morgan, William Wilson; Keenan, Philip Childs; Kellman, Edith (1943), "An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification", Chicago, Ill., The University of Chicago press</ref>  Adding a luminosity classification added a second dimension to the single dimensional [[Harvard University|Harvard]] spectral sequence.  Today the two classifications of temperature and luminosity is used to give the spectral sequence for a star.<ref>http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1973ARA%26A..11...29M&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=449aa1cc7c02014</ref>  For example, the [[sun]]'s spectral type is G2 and its luminosity class is V (five).

In addition to the spectral type, astronomers today add a ''luminosity class'', which varies from 0 to VII in order of decreasing brightness. This is known as the '''Yerkes spectral classification'''.  This classification was first developed by astronomers William Wilson Morgan, Phillip C. Keenan and Edith Kellman at the [[Yerkes Observatory]] in 1943.<ref>Morgan, William Wilson; Keenan, Philip Childs; Kellman, Edith (1943), "An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification", Chicago, Ill., The University of Chicago press</ref>  Adding a luminosity classification added a second dimension to the single dimensional [[Harvard University|Harvard]] spectral sequence.  Today the two classifications of temperature and luminosity is used to give the spectral sequence for a star.<ref>Morgan, W. and Keenan, P. (1973). Spectral Classification. ''Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics'', 11(1), pp.29-50. [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/#abs/1973ARA&A..11...29M/abstract Bibcode:1973ARA&A..11...29M]</ref>  For example, the [[sun]]'s spectral type is G2 and its luminosity class is V (five).

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

[[Image:CNO_Cycle.png|300px|thumb|CNO cycle]]The [[Sun]], and stars as massive as the Sun or less massive, commonly use a [[nuclear fusion]] process called the '''proton-proton chain reaction''' to produce [[energy]]. A full description of that process appears [[Sun#Energy production and transport|here]].

[[Image:CNO_Cycle.png|300px|thumb|CNO cycle]]The [[Sun]], and stars as massive as the Sun or less massive, commonly use a [[nuclear fusion]] process called the '''proton-proton chain reaction''' to produce [[energy]]. A full description of that process appears [[Sun#Energy production and transport|here]].

In 1938 and 1989, two physicists, Carl F. von Weizsäcker<ref name=Weiz>Von Weizsäcker, Carl F. ''Physik. Zeitsch.'' 39:633, 1938.</ref> and Hans Bethe<ref name=Bethe>Bethe, Hans A. "[http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v55/i5/p434_1 Energy Production in Stars]." ''Physics Review'' 55(5):434-456, 1939. {{doi|10.1103/PhysRev.55.434}} Accessed June 27, 2008.</ref> independently proposed a [[nuclear fusion]] process, the '''[[Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle|Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle]]''', by which stars more massive than the [[sun]] produce energy. In this process, stars convert [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]] using [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], and [[oxygen]] as catalysts. The reaction also produces two [[positron]]s and two [[neutrino|electron neutrino]]s.<ref name=Krane>Krane, Kenneth S. ''Introductory Nuclear Physics''. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988, p. 537. ISBN 9780471805533</ref>

In 1938 and 1989, two physicists, Carl F. von Weizsäcker<ref name=Weiz>Von Weizsäcker, Carl F. ''Physik. Zeitsch.'' 39:633, 1938.</ref> and Hans Bethe<ref name=Bethe>Bethe, Hans A. "[https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.55.434 Energy Production in Stars]." ''Physics Review'' 55(5):434-456, 1939. {{doi|10.1103/PhysRev.55.434}} Accessed january 24, 2019.</ref> independently proposed a [[nuclear fusion]] process, the '''[[Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle|Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle]]''', by which stars more massive than the [[sun]] produce energy. In this process, stars convert [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]] using [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], and [[oxygen]] as catalysts. The reaction also produces two [[positron]]s and two [[neutrino|electron neutrino]]s.<ref name=Krane>Krane, Kenneth S. ''Introductory Nuclear Physics''. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988, p. 537. ISBN 9780471805533</ref>

The equations for the cycle are as follows:

The equations for the cycle are as follows:

<math>{}^{12}_6\!\mbox{C} + {}^1_1\!\mbox{H} \to {}^{13}_7\!\mbox{N} + \gamma + \mbox{1.95 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{12}_{\ 6} \mbox{C} + {}^1_1 \mbox{H} \to {}^{13}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} + \gamma + \mbox{1.95 MeV}</math>

<math>{}^{13}_7\!\mbox{N} \to {}^{13}_6\!\mbox{C} + {}^0_1\!e^+ + {}^0_0\!\nu_e + \mbox{2.22 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{13}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} \to {}^{13}_{\ 6} \mbox{C} + {}^0_1 e^+ + {}^0_0 \nu_e + \mbox{2.22 MeV}</math>

<math>{}^{13}_6\!\mbox{C} + {}^1_1\!\mbox{H} \to {}^{14}_7\!\mbox{N} + \gamma + \mbox{7.54 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{13}_{\ 6} \mbox{C} + {}^1_1 \mbox{H} \to {}^{14}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} + \gamma + \mbox{7.54 MeV}</math>

<math>{}^{14}_7\!\mbox{N} + {}^1_1\!\mbox{H} \to {}^{15}_8\!\mbox{O} + \gamma + \mbox{7.35 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{14}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} + {}^1_1 \mbox{H} \to {}^{15}_{\ 8} \mbox{O} + \gamma + \mbox{7.35 MeV}</math>

<math>{}^{15}_8\!\mbox{O} \to {}^{15}_7\!\mbox{N} + {}^0_1\!e^+ + {}^0_0\!\nu_e + \mbox{2.75 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{15}_{\ 8} \mbox{O} \to {}^{15}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} + {}^0_1 e^+ + {}^0_0 \nu_e + \mbox{2.75 MeV}</math>

<math>{}^{15}_7\!\mbox{N} + {}^1_1\!\mbox{H} \to {}^{12}_6\!\mbox{C} + {}^4_2\!\mbox{He} + \mbox{4.96 MeV}</math>

:<math>{}^{15}_{\ 7} \mbox{N} + {}^1_1 \mbox{H} \to {}^{12}_{\ 6} \mbox{C} + {}^4_2 \mbox{He} + \mbox{4.96 MeV}</math>

The last reaction reproduces the <math>{}^{12}_6\!\mbox{C}</math> nucleus that the first reaction consumes. The end result of this process is:

The last reaction reproduces the <math>{}^{12}_{\ 6} \mbox{C}</math> nucleus that the first reaction consumes. The end result of this process is:

<math>\mbox{4} {}^1_1\!\mbox{H} \to {}^4_2\!\mbox{He} + \mbox{2} {}^0_1\!e^+ + \mbox{2} {}^0_0\!\nu_e + \mbox{3} \gamma + \mbox{26.8 MeV}</math>

:<math>\mbox{4} \, {}^1_1 \mbox{H} \to {}^4_2 \mbox{He} + \mbox{2} \, {}^0_1 e^+ + \mbox{2} \, {}^0_0 \nu_e + \mbox{3} \, \gamma + \mbox{26.8 MeV}</math>

Rarely, this cycle branches into a somewhat different cycle involving [[fluorine]], and that second cycle is thought to branch again in some of the most massive stars.

Rarely, this cycle branches into a somewhat different cycle involving [[fluorine]], and that second cycle is thought to branch again in some of the most massive stars.

==Origins==

==Origins==

Christian scientists assert that [[materialism|materialistic]] explanations of the origin of stars are errant and contra-evidence and reports of stars forming are invalid.<ref>http://www.icr.org/article/403/</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v18/i2/stars.asp</ref><ref>http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/AstroPhysicalSciences21.html</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp#55</ref><ref>http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v19/i1/feedback.asp</ref> In addition, creationists cite the secular scientific literature in order to make the case that materialist explanations of star formation are inadequate:

Christian scientists assert that [[materialism|materialistic]] explanations of the origin of stars are errant and contra-evidence and reports of stars forming are invalid.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icr.org/article/403/|title=New Stars, New Planets?|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v18/i2/stars.asp|title=Were Stars Created?|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/AstroPhysicalSciences21.html|title=Fast Binaries|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp#55|title=Astronomy and the Bible|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v19/i1/feedback.asp|title=Letters to the Editor: December 1996|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref> In addition, creationists cite the secular scientific literature in order to make the case that materialist explanations of star formation are inadequate:

“We don’t understand how a single star forms, yet we want to understand how 10 billion stars form.” Carlos Frenk, as quoted by Robert Irion, “Surveys Scour the Cosmic Deep,” Science, Vol. 303, 19 March 2004, p.&nbsp;1750.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/303/5665/1750</ref>

“We don’t understand how a single star forms, yet we want to understand how 10 billion stars form.” Carlos Frenk, as quoted by Robert Irion, “Surveys Scour the Cosmic Deep,” Science, Vol. 303, 19 March 2004, p.&nbsp;1750.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/303/5665/1750.summary|title=Surveys Scour the Cosmic Deep|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref>

“Nobody really understands how star formation proceeds. It’s really remarkable.” Rogier A. Windhorst, as quoted by Corey S. Powell, “A Matter of Timing,” Scientific American, Vol. 267, October 1992, p.&nbsp;30.<ref>http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992SciAm.267Q..26P</ref>

“Nobody really understands how star formation proceeds. It’s really remarkable.” Rogier A. Windhorst, as quoted by Corey S. Powell, “A Matter of Timing,” Scientific American, Vol. 267, October 1992, p.&nbsp;30.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icr.org/article/786/247/|title=In the beginning, Hydrogen|accessdate=2019-01-24}}</ref>

==Habitable zone==

==Habitable zone==