Difference between revisions of "Archaeology"

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'''Archaeology''' (or '''archeology''') is the branch of American [[Anthropology]] that reconstructs, describes, and interprets human behavior and [[cultural]] patterns through material remains such as [[artifact]]s, ecofacts, and lithics.[1] In most European universities, Archaeology is typically a part of the history department.  Archaeologists generally are divided by specialty.  Historic archaeologists concentrate on sites and cultures associated with modern times.  Classical archaeologists are interested in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and other similar societies.  [[Prehistoric]] archaeologists tend to concentrate on societies not possesing a written language.  There is also the field of Cultural Resource Management, or Applied Archaeology, which is entailed with screening for, and then preserving archaeological sites.  There is also a number of [[Biblical]] archaeologists interested in excavating sites related to Biblical stories or timeframes.
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[[File:Mycenae dig.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Archaeological excavation at the site of Mycenae, Greece, 2006.]]
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Archaeology (Greek: ''ἀρχα ος'', "ancient"; and ''λόγος'', "study") is the science that studies human cultures and civilizations of the past and their relations with the surrounding environment, via the collection, documentation, and analysis of the material they have left behind, such as architecture, artifacts, biological and human remains.  Within the various universities of United States of America archaeology, along with [[ethnology]], [[linguistics]] and [[physical anthropology]], is considered a sub-field of [[anthropology]], the scientific study of human life and cultures from earliest times to the present day.
  
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Archaeologists rely on the careful [[excavation]] interpretation of artfacts in order to explore the past.  The quinesential experience of all archaeologists is the "dig", or field excavation.  In actuality, an excavation is nothing more than very precise, very scientific hole digging. Archaeologists must measure and record the exact position in three dimensions of an artifact, and also note differences in soil composition, stratification, color, and consistency. When an arcaheological dig is complete, the researchers must be able to reconstruct the exact locations of all the artifacts and ecofacts that were removed from the site. Failure to do this results in a loss of context, and ultimately data that are unusable.  
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Archaeology is traditionally divided into disciplines according to the period or culture being studied (i.e. [[classical archaeology]], [[Egyptology]], [[industrial archaeology]], etc.); particular investigative techniques ([[underwater archaeology]], [[experimental archaeology]], etc.); specific problems ([[urban archeology]], [[theoretical archaeology]], etc.); or based on the type of material examined ([[numismatics]], [[epigraphy]]). The notion of archaeological discovery has evolved as research methods progressed, with discoveries becoming less and less dependent on chance or intuition.
  
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==The possibly first Church Structure==
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==Research methods==
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Archaeological research methods are divided into those of source indexing and those of interpretation<ref>https://msu.edu/~aarondan/methodsofarchaeology.htm</ref>.  In the public eye, usually only the development of the sources is noted, which also includes the typological and chronological evaluation.  Historical interpretations are made when the source development and preparation is done.
  
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On Mount Zion in Jerusalem, identified wrongly as such by the Crusaders, close to the present day Roman Catholic Dormition Abbey, and entering the room below that of the Last Supper of Jesus, one views the huge remembrance stone indicating the tomb of King David from Crusader times. Outside the tomb enclosure, there are are usually orthodox Jews praying. But behind the remembrance stone on the fire-blackened wall of the room facing the Temple Mount, one can see the niche at the exact height above the ground for the scrolls of the Bible to be placed. This indicates that the room had originally been a synagogue. Walking around the outside of the room in the courtyard, one can see the unique "Herodian" stone blocks with their characteristic and tell-tale incised borders. So this room was originally built in the first century. Further, the stones were of different sizes and shapes indicating that this was their secondary placement having been brought here from elsewhere, perhaps the destroyed temple area itself. During the 1948 Israeli War of Independence, an artillery shell landed in the courtyard, shattering the successive layers of plaster of the room within, until the last layer could be seen, extending down past the Ottoman Turk, Early Muslim, Crusader, Byzantine period floor levels, ending at the original 1st century floor. This was further confirmation that the room was built in the first century. There were prayer ejaculations in the Greek language to Jesus inscribed on the wall. This indicates that the synagogue was a hellenistic oriented Jewish Christian synagogue (similar to the New Testament reference to the Jewish "synagogue of the Libertines"). It also explains why the room, right across the valley from the Temple Mount, was not oriented to it in the usual way so that the worshippers would face the temple, but was rather facing north in the exact direction of the both the later "Constantinian" Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the most recent "Gordon's Calvary" - the two contenders for the site of the crucifixtion, burial and resurrection of Jesus.  
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====Survey====
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The survey is that which the archaeologist and his team does to determine whether or not the site is valid for excavation; it is non-destructive in nature, and makes use of historical written documents and/or non-destructive methods and tools that enable the investigation of potential or known sites. Such methods and tools include aerial photography (as from an aircraft, balloon, or drone), [[remote sensing]], and geophysical methods (geoelectrics, electromagnetic induction, geomagnetic mapping, ground-penetrating radar and LIDAR).
  
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This "Kibla" or prayer direction is in accord with ancient practice of facing the direction of importance . For the Old Testament and Judaism, facing Jerusalem and, in particular if within Jeruselem, facing the temple; for Islam (after it disavowed Jerusalem as the kibla), facing Mecca; and, at one time, for Christians, facing the East, the direction of the rising sun (Mal.3) and also the direction from which Christ would return.  
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The second step in the survey is a preliminary excavation in which a small area of the potential site is disturbed. This excavation uses search trenches, magnetic sounding, soil resistance measurement, phosphate testing and other methods of soil research. This excavation and further related research serves to form a picture of the potential excavation site in order to better plan the actual excavation.
  
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The mosaic Byzantine Madaba map of Jerusalem shows the location and the room as being adjacent to another structure - the Church of the Holy Apostles, indicating that it was considered as particularly important or held holy in the Byzantine period. The later huge Crusader period Church of St. Mary, built at the same spot as the earlier Byzantine church, is shown by archeology to have actually included the room within the Church structure. This then was the most likely first Church and home to the Believers in Jesus before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. The "Church House", possibly the home of Mark, that would later be called "The Church of the Holy Apostles" and the "Mother of all Churches" - (The Liturgy of St. James).
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====Excavation====
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The excavation of the potential site takes place after a thorough survey is completed.  A rope-grid is mapped out and pegged on the site, usually consisting of an area divided into several square yards or meters, and further divided into individual squares.  Test pits are then dug, which are used to determine the density, spread, and location of artifacts. Satisfied with the results, the main excavation then begins with a larger dig within the grid. Overlaying soil is carefully removed, exposing any artifacts which may lie beneath.  The artifact itself is not initially removed at first; it is carefully mapped in relation to the site and photographed.  Since archaeology itself is destructive in nature, careful documentation of all finds is extremely important, and reconstructable in detail later on. In addition, soil which has been removed is carefully sifted via a mesh screen for small artifacts which may have been missed.
  
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==See Also==
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===Evaluation===
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Although the actual excavation is the best-known research method, it is only a small part of the archaeological work. The documentation, evaluation, conservation and archiving of the finds represents by far the largest part of the archaeological activity, and is done using the following methods and tools:
  
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[[Israel Tourism]] for biblical archaeological and other sites of Israel
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====Typology====
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Typology is the classification of objects according to criteria of form and material. It is fundamental for the classification of artifacts, since it allows comparisons with artifacts found at other sites and becomes the basis of combination analyses (for the relatively chronological dating as well as the socioeconomic classification) and distribution analyses.
  
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====Material provisions====
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As with the survey and age determination, modern scientific techniques are also used for material determinations (such as [[Archaeometry]]).  For the identification and detailed investigation of artifacts a number of tools are used, such as microscopy, infrared and ultrasound imaging, X-ray, chemical and spectral analysis and laser scanning.
  
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== Refs ==
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====Determination of age====
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[1]Kottak, Conrad. 2005. ''Window on humanity: A Concise Introduction to Anthropology'' New York: McGraw-Hill.
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A focus of archaeological analysis is the dating of the site (such as a grave) on the basis of the artifacts found (i.e. grave goods).  The dating of the site distinguishes between absolute chronology and relative chronology.
  
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Relative, or indirect chronology relates the comparative analysis of one find to another, or in the context of associated regional, cultural, or geological evidence:
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*Typology
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*[[Chorology]]
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*[[Stratigraphy]]
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In absolute chronology an artifact or site is assigned an absolute date:
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*[[Carbon-14]] dating (for organic substances)
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*[[Thermoluminescence]] dating also: TL dating (for ceramics)
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*[[Dendrochronology]] (for wood)
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*[[Potassium-argon]] method (for rock)
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==See also==
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* [[Nelson Glueck]]
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== References ==
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<small><References/></small>
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==External links==
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*[https://aiar.org/ W.F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research]
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*[https://www.royalarchinst.org/ Royal Archaeological Institute]
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*[https://new.archaeologyuk.org/ Council for British Archaeology]
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*[https://www.archaeological.org/ Archaeological Institute of America]
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*[https://www.saa.org/ Society for American Archaeology]
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*[http://www.biblearchaeology.org Associates for Biblical Research]
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*[https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/magazine Biblical Archaeology Review]
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*[https://www.archaeology.org/ Archaeology Magazine]
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[[Category:Anthropology]]
 
[[Category:Archaeology]]
 
[[Category:Archaeology]]
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[[Category:History]]
 

Latest revision as of 20:50, July 16, 2024

Archaeological excavation at the site of Mycenae, Greece, 2006.

Archaeology (Greek: ἀρχα ος, "ancient"; and λόγος, "study") is the science that studies human cultures and civilizations of the past and their relations with the surrounding environment, via the collection, documentation, and analysis of the material they have left behind, such as architecture, artifacts, biological and human remains. Within the various universities of United States of America archaeology, along with ethnology, linguistics and physical anthropology, is considered a sub-field of anthropology, the scientific study of human life and cultures from earliest times to the present day.

Archaeology is traditionally divided into disciplines according to the period or culture being studied (i.e. classical archaeology, Egyptology, industrial archaeology, etc.); particular investigative techniques (underwater archaeology, experimental archaeology, etc.); specific problems (urban archeology, theoretical archaeology, etc.); or based on the type of material examined (numismatics, epigraphy). The notion of archaeological discovery has evolved as research methods progressed, with discoveries becoming less and less dependent on chance or intuition.

Research methods

Archaeological research methods are divided into those of source indexing and those of interpretation[1]. In the public eye, usually only the development of the sources is noted, which also includes the typological and chronological evaluation. Historical interpretations are made when the source development and preparation is done.

Survey

The survey is that which the archaeologist and his team does to determine whether or not the site is valid for excavation; it is non-destructive in nature, and makes use of historical written documents and/or non-destructive methods and tools that enable the investigation of potential or known sites. Such methods and tools include aerial photography (as from an aircraft, balloon, or drone), remote sensing, and geophysical methods (geoelectrics, electromagnetic induction, geomagnetic mapping, ground-penetrating radar and LIDAR).

The second step in the survey is a preliminary excavation in which a small area of the potential site is disturbed. This excavation uses search trenches, magnetic sounding, soil resistance measurement, phosphate testing and other methods of soil research. This excavation and further related research serves to form a picture of the potential excavation site in order to better plan the actual excavation.

Excavation

The excavation of the potential site takes place after a thorough survey is completed. A rope-grid is mapped out and pegged on the site, usually consisting of an area divided into several square yards or meters, and further divided into individual squares. Test pits are then dug, which are used to determine the density, spread, and location of artifacts. Satisfied with the results, the main excavation then begins with a larger dig within the grid. Overlaying soil is carefully removed, exposing any artifacts which may lie beneath. The artifact itself is not initially removed at first; it is carefully mapped in relation to the site and photographed. Since archaeology itself is destructive in nature, careful documentation of all finds is extremely important, and reconstructable in detail later on. In addition, soil which has been removed is carefully sifted via a mesh screen for small artifacts which may have been missed.

Evaluation

Although the actual excavation is the best-known research method, it is only a small part of the archaeological work. The documentation, evaluation, conservation and archiving of the finds represents by far the largest part of the archaeological activity, and is done using the following methods and tools:

Typology

Typology is the classification of objects according to criteria of form and material. It is fundamental for the classification of artifacts, since it allows comparisons with artifacts found at other sites and becomes the basis of combination analyses (for the relatively chronological dating as well as the socioeconomic classification) and distribution analyses.

Material provisions

As with the survey and age determination, modern scientific techniques are also used for material determinations (such as Archaeometry). For the identification and detailed investigation of artifacts a number of tools are used, such as microscopy, infrared and ultrasound imaging, X-ray, chemical and spectral analysis and laser scanning.

Determination of age

A focus of archaeological analysis is the dating of the site (such as a grave) on the basis of the artifacts found (i.e. grave goods). The dating of the site distinguishes between absolute chronology and relative chronology.

Relative, or indirect chronology relates the comparative analysis of one find to another, or in the context of associated regional, cultural, or geological evidence:

In absolute chronology an artifact or site is assigned an absolute date:

See also

References

  1. ↑ https://msu.edu/~aarondan/methodsofarchaeology.htm

External links

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