Difference between revisions of "Medical marijuana"

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[[Image:Cannabis sativa extract.png|frame|right|A catalog page offering ''Cannabis sativa'' extract.]]
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[[Image:Marijuana vending machine.jpg|175px|thumb|right|Marijuana vending machines have been likened to [[gumball]] machines and other candy dispensors, with an emphasis on easy, recreational use instead of responsible medical use.]]
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'''"Medical" marijuana''' is [[marijuana]] used for its claimed analgesic or otherwise therapeutic effects (see [[Glaucoma]], [[Cancer]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Casanova ML, Blázquez C, Martínez-Palacio J, ''et al.'' |title=Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |year=2003 |month=January |pmid=12511587 |pmc=151833 |doi=10.1172/JCI16116 |issn=0021-9738 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Patsos HA, Hicks DJ, Dobson RR, ''et al.'' |title=The endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, induces cell death in colorectal carcinoma cells: a possible role for cyclooxygenase 2 |journal=Gut |volume=54 |issue=12 |pages=1741–50 |year=2005 |month=December |pmid=16099783 |pmc=1774787 |doi=10.1136/gut.2005.073403 |issn=0017-5749}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lorente M, Carracedo A, Torres S, ''et al.'' |title=Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis |journal=Glia |volume= 57|issue= 13|pages=NA |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19229996 |doi=10.1002/glia.20856 |issn=0894-1491}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ramer R, Hinz B |title=Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1 |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18159069 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djm268 |issn=0027-8874 |url=http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18159069 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Powles T, te Poele R, Shamash J, ''et al.'' |title=Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannabinoid receptors and the MAPK pathway |journal=Blood |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=1214–21 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15454482 |doi=10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182 |issn=0006-4971 |url=http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15454482 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[Anorexia Nervosa]],<ref>Grotenhermen, Russo. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential . New York: The Hawthorn Integrative Healing Press, 2002,. Grotenhermen, “Review of Therapeutic Effects.” Chapter 11, p. 128</ref> [[Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Carter GT, Rosen BS |title=Marijuana in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis |journal=The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=264–70 |year=2001 |pmid=11467101 |doi=10.1177/104990910101800411 |month= July|issn=1049-9091}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Weydt P, Hong S, Witting A, Möller T, Stella N, Kliot M |title=Cannabinol delays symptom onset in SOD1 (G93A) transgenic mice without affecting survival |journal=Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Other Motor Neuron Disorders |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=182–4 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16183560 |doi=10.1080/14660820510030149 |url=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a723777607 |issn=1466-0822}}</ref> [[Seizures]], [[Schizophrenia]],<ref>Zuardi A.W., Crippa J.A.S., Hallak J.E.C., Moreira F.A., Guimarães F.S. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research [http://www.scielo.br/pdf/bjmbr/v39n4/6164.pdf Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug] (PDF) 2006. Vol. 39. Page 421-9. ISSN 0100-879X</ref> [[tumor|Skin Tumors]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Casanova ML, Blázquez C, Martínez-Palacio J, ''et al.'' |title=Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |year=2003 |month=January |pmid=12511587 |pmc=151833 |doi=10.1172/JCI16116 |issn=0021-9738 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070417193338.htm Science Daily 4/7/2007]</ref> [[Gliomas]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lorente M, Carracedo A, Torres S, ''et al.'' |title=Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis |journal=Glia |volume= 57|issue= 13|pages=NA |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19229996 |doi=10.1002/glia.20856 |issn=0894-1491}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ramer R, Hinz B |title=Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1 |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=59–69 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18159069 |doi=10.1093/jnci/djm268 |issn=0027-8874 |url=http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18159069 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[Arthritis]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Malfait AM, Gallily R, Sumariwalla PF, ''et al.'' |title=The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=97 |issue=17 |pages=9561–6 |year=2000 |month=August |pmid=10920191 |pmc=16904 |doi=10.1073/pnas.160105897 |issn=0027-8424 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10920191 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[Bipolar Disorder]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB |title=The use of cannabis as a mood stabilizer in bipolar disorder: anecdotal evidence and the need for clinical research |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=171–7 |year=1998 |pmid=9692379 |url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/TheUseofCannabisasaMoodStabilizerinBipolarDisorder.html |month= April|issn=0279-1072}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ashton CH, Moore PB, Gallagher P, Young AH |title=Cannabinoids in bipolar affective disorder: a review and discussion of their therapeutic potential |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=293–300 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15888515 |doi=10.1177/0269881105051541 |issn=0269-8811}}</ref> [[Dystonia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fox SH, Kellett M, Moore AP, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM |title=Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the potential of cannabinoid receptor stimulation in the treatment of dystonia |journal=Movement Disorders |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=145–9 |year=2002 |month=January |pmid=11835452 |doi=10.1002/mds.1280 |issn=0885-3185}}</ref> [[Epilepsy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8440303/Cannabis-could-be-used-to-treat-epilepsy.html |title=Cannabis could be used to treat epilepsy |publisher=Telegraph |date=2011-04-10 |accessdate=2011-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Marsicano G, Goodenough S, Monory K, ''et al.'' |title=CB1 cannabinoid receptors and on-demand defense against excitotoxicity |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5642 |pages=84–8 |year=2003 |month=October |pmid=14526074 |doi=10.1126/science.1088208 |last12=Casanova |first12=E |last13=Schütz |first13=G |last14=Zieglgänsberger |first14=W |last15=Di Marzo |first15=V |last16=Behl |first16=C |last17=Lutz |first17=B |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bacci A, Huguenard JR, Prince DA |title=Long-lasting self-inhibition of neocortical interneurons mediated by endocannabinoids |journal=Nature |volume=431 |issue=7006 |pages=312–6 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15372034 |doi=10.1038/nature02913 |laysummary=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/09/040916102315.htm |laysource=[[Science Daily]] |laydate=16 September 2004 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> [[Hepatitis C]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Sylvestre DL, Clements BJ, Malibu Y |title=Cannabis use improves retention and virological outcomes in patients treated for hepatitis C |journal=European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=1057–63 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16957511 |doi=10.1097/01.meg.0000216934.22114.51 |issn=0954-691X}}</ref> [[Depression]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bambico FR, Katz N, Debonnel G, Gobbi G |title=Cannabinoids elicit antidepressant-like behavior and activate serotonergic neurons through the medial prefrontal cortex |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=43 |pages=11700–11 |year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17959812 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1636-07.2007 |laysummary=https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,304996,00.html |laysource=[[Fox News Channel]] |laydate=25 October 2007 |issn=0270-6474 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17959812 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Denson TF, Earleywine M |title=Decreased depression in marijuana users |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=738–42 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=15964704 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.052 |url=http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/DecreasedDepressionInMjUsers05.pdf |issn=0306-4603}}</ref><ref name="Zhang_etal">{{Cite journal|author=Jiang W, Zhang Y, Xiao L, ''et al.'' |title=Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |volume=115 |issue=11 |pages=3104–16 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16224541 |pmc=1253627 |doi=10.1172/JCI25509 |issn=0021-9738 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=El-Remessy AB, Al-Shabrawey M, Khalifa Y, Tsai NT, Caldwell RB, Liou GI |title=Neuroprotective and blood-retinal barrier-preserving effects of cannabidiol in experimental diabetes |journal=The American Journal of Pathology |volume=168 |issue=1 |pages=235–44 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16400026 |pmc=1592672 |doi=10.2353/ajpath.2006.050500 |issn=0002-9440 |url=http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16400026 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[Leukemia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Powles T, te Poele R, Shamash J, ''et al.'' |title=Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannabinoid receptors and the MAPK pathway |journal=Blood |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=1214–21 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15454482 |doi=10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182 |issn=0006-4971 |url=http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15454482 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[Huntington's Disease]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/cannabid.htm |title=Cannabidiol: The Wonder Drug of the 21st Century? |publisher=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy |date= |accessdate=10 August 2009}}{{Verify credibility|date=August 2009}}</ref> [[Parkinson's Disease]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC |title=Endocannabinoid-mediated rescue of striatal LTD and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease models |journal=Nature |volume=445 |issue=7128 |pages=643–7 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=17287809 |doi=10.1038/nature05506 |laysummary=http://med.stanford.edu/news_releases/2007/february/malenka.html |laysource=[[Stanford University School of Medicine]] |laydate=7 February 2007 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> [[Pruritus]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Szepietowski JC, Szepietowski T, Reich A |title=Efficacy and tolerance of the cream containing structured physiological lipids with endocannabinoids in the treatment of uremic pruritus: a preliminary study |journal=Acta Dermatovenerologica Croatica |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=97–103 |year=2005 |pmid=16324422 |issn=1330-027X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bergasa NV |title=The pruritus of cholestasis |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1078–88 |year=2005 |month=December |pmid=16253381 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2005.09.004 |issn=0168-8278}}</ref> [[Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA)]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stavri M, Smith E, Rahman MM |title=Antibacterial Cannabinoids from ''Cannabis sativa'': A Structure—Activity Study |journal=J Nat Prod |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=1427–30 |year=2008|pmid=18681481 |doi=10.1021/np8002673 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/np8002673 |format=PDF |laysummary=http://www.webmd.com/news/20080904/marijuana-chemicals-may-fight-mrsa |laysource=[[WebMD]] |laydate=4 September 2008 |accessdate=6 November 2010}}</ref> [[Sickle-Cell Disease]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16173972 |title=Cannabis use in sickle cell disease: A questionnaire study |date= |accessdate=9 June 2010}}</ref> [[Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)]],<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.cannabis-med.org/english/bulletin/ww_en_db_cannabis_artikel.php?id=123#1 |title=Science: Endocannabinoids extinguish bad memories in the brain |publisher=International Association for Cannabis as Medicine |journal=IACM-Bulletin |date=4 August 2002 |accessdate=11 August 2009}}</ref> [[Sleep Apnea]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Carley DW, Paviovic S, Janelidze M, Radulovacki M |title=Functional role for cannabinoids in respiratory stability during sleep |journal=Sleep |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=391–8 |year=2002 |month=June |pmid=12071539 |issn=0161-8105 |url=http://www.scholaruniverse.com/ncbi-linkout?id=12071539 |format=Free full text}}</ref>  and [[Artherosclerosis]]<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Cannabis may help keep arteries clear |date=16 April 2005 |doi=10.1038/nature03389 |journal=New Scientist |author=Steffens, Sabine |volume=434 |page=782 |pmid=15815632 |last1=Steffens |first1=S |last2=Veillard |first2=NR |last3=Arnaud |first3=C |last4=Pelli |first4=G |last5=Burger |first5=F |last6=Staub |first6=C |last7=Karsak |first7=M |last8=Zimmer |first8=A |last9=Frossard |first9=JL |issue=7034 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref>).
  
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'''Medical cannabis''' refers to the use of the [[Cannabis (drug)|drug]] ''[[Cannabis]]'' as a physician-recommended herbal therapy, most notably as an [[antiemetic]]. The term '''''medical marijuana''''' post-dates the U.S. [[1937 Marijuana Tax Act|Marijuana Tax Act]] of 1937, the effect of which made cannabis prescriptions illegal in the United States.
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Some studies claim that Cannabidiol, a chemical compound found in marijuana, inhibits cancer cell growth in lab animals.<ref>Mechoulam R., Peters M., Murillo-Rodriguez E., Hanus L.O. '''Cannabidiol - recent advances'''. ''Chemistry & Biodiversity''. August 2007. Vol. 4, Issue 8. Page 1678-92. pmid=17712814. doi=10.1002/cbdv.200790147</ref> Recent studies have claimed cannabidiol to be as effective as [[atypical antipsychotics]] in treating [[schizophrenia]].,<ref>Zuardi A.W., Crippa J.A.S., Hallak J.E.C., Moreira F.A., Guimarães F.S. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research [http://www.scielo.br/pdf/bjmbr/v39n4/6164.pdf Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug] (PDF) 2006. Vol. 39. Page 421-9. ISSN 0100-879X</ref> and [[marijuana]] is commonly viewed as a natural alternative to any otherwise synthetic pharmaceutical drugs. It has also been claimed to increase brain cell growth <ref>[http://www.peak.sfu.ca/the-peak/2005-3/issue9/ne-mj.html science: Study shows marijuana increases brain cell growth ]</ref> and increase appetite, which its proponents claim can be useful for patients undergoing chemotherapy. Marijuana has been used to treat anorexia and has been used as an antiemetic.<ref>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Support/marijuana National Cancer Institute]</ref> Harvard University conducted a study on the effect of Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on certain lung cancers. The result of the test was that THC can reduce tumor size by as much as half.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070417193338.htm Science Daily 4/7/2007]</ref> In addition to a significant reduction in tumor size, there was a reduction in lesions on the lungs by 60%, and a reduction in protein markers associated with the progression of cancer.<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070417193338.htm Science Daily 4/17/2007]</ref> This study claims that not only can THC treat the side effects of cancer treatment, but can stop the spread of cancer, repair damage caused by tumors, and even reduce the size of tumors.
  
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There are many studies regarding the use of cannabis in a medicinal context.<ref>http://www.medicalmarijuanaprocon.org/pop/studychart.htm </ref><ref>http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3376 </ref><ref>http://www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1086505/k.AF5A/About.htm </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/56753/ |title=AlterNet: DrugReporter: New Studies Expose Government Lies About Medical Pot |accessdate=2007-07-13 |format= |work=}}  </ref> Cannabis was listed in the United States Pharmacopeia from 1850 until 1942,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} however the United States federal government does not currently recognize any legitimate medical use, although there are currently seven patients receiving cannabis for their various illnesses through a Federal Medical Marijuana program that was closed to new patients by President [[George H. W. Bush]]. (See also [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]]).  Regardless, [[Francis L. Young]], an administrative law judge with the [[Drug Enforcement Agency]], has declared that "''in its natural form, (cannabis) is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known.''"<ref>http://www.druglibrary.org/olsen/MEDICAL/YOUNG/young.html</ref>
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In addition to the claimed positive effect on cancer treatment symptoms and cancer itself, marijuana is used to help patients afflicted with [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis|ALS]].<ref>[http://ajh.sagepub.com/content/18/4/264.short American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine]</ref>
  
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== History ==
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Marijuana is an [[antispasmodic]] and is used in the treatment of seizures.<ref>[http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9586&page=106 National Academies Press: Marijuana and muscle spasticity]</ref> Marijuana is also used in the treatment of migraines, arthritis,<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/art.1780090304/abstract Online Library: Treatment of adjuvant arthritis in rats with anti-inflammatory drugs]</ref> depression,<ref>[http://www.interestingfacts.org/fact/facts-about-marijuana Interesting Facts: Facts about marijuana]</ref> and glaucoma. However the effect of marijuana on intraocular pressure (IOC) is not as effective as those offered by other drugs on the market.<ref>[http://www.nei.nih.gov/news/statements/marij.asp National Eye Institue: Glaucoma and Marijuana use]</ref>
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[[Image:Marijuana.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cannabis]] plant]]Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for over 4,800 years.<ref>http://www.zauberpilz.com/golden/g31-40.htm</ref> Surviving texts from [[Ancient India]] confirm that its psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, insomnia, headaches and as a pain reliever, frequently used in childbirth.
 
  
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Cannabis as a medicine was common throughout most of the world in the 1800s.  It was used as the primary pain reliever until the invention of [[aspirin]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/1632726.stm</ref> Modern medical and scientific inquiry began with doctors like [[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|O'Shaughnessy]] and [[Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours|Moreau de Tours]], who used it to treat [[melancholia]], [[migraine]]s, and as a sleeping aid, [[analgesic]] and [[anticonvulsant]].
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Critics, however, doubt that there are any beneficial medicinal effects of marijuana that cannot be duplicated by other, less-addictive drugs.  They also charge that efforts to legalize "medical" marijuana are merely a pretext for general decriminalization of a common "[[gateway drug]]" for recreational use.
  
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By the time the [[United States]] banned cannabis (the third country to do so) with the [[1937 Marijuana Tax Act]], the plant was no longer extremely popular.  One of the main opponents to the bill was the representative of the [[American Medical Association]].<ref>http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/AMA_opposes_1937.html</ref>
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Several states have legalized "medical" marijuana.  Under the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration, the federal government ignored such state laws, viewing them as unconstitutional interference with federal law.  [[California]]'s law was overturned by the [[Supreme Court]] in the case [[Gonzales v. Raich]],<ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/03-1454.ZO.html Full text of majority opinion, ''Gonzales v. Raich'']</ref> which said that Congress can "regulate purely local activities that are part of an economic 'class of activities' that have a substantial effect on interstate commerce." This decision has been criticized by numerous [[conservative]]s and [[libertarian]]s as an unwarranted expansion of Federal power.  Also, [[Barack Hussein Obama|Barack Obama]] has directed Federal prosecutors to avoid prosecuting activities legal under such state laws.<ref>"[http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/medical-marijuana.pdf Memo to Justice Department attorneys]", 19 October 2009</ref>
  
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Later in the century, researchers investigating methods of detecting cannabis intoxication discovered that smoking the drug reduced intraocular pressure.<ref>http://www.zauberpilz.com/golden/g31-40.htm</ref> High intraocular pressure causes blindness in [[glaucoma]] patients, so many believed that using the drug could prevent blindness in patients.  Many [[Vietnam War]] veterans also believed that the drug prevented muscle spasms caused by battle-induced spinal injuries.  Later medical use has focused primarily on its role in preventing the wasting syndromes and chronic loss of appetite associated with [[chemotherapy]] and [[AIDS]], along with a variety of rare muscular and skeletal disorders.  Less commonly, cannabis has been used in the treatment of [[alcoholism]] and [[addiction]] to other [[drug abuse|drugs]] such as  [[heroin]] and the prevention of [[migraine]]s. In recent years, studies have shown or researchers have speculated that the main chemical in the drug, THC, might help prevent [[atherosclerosis]].
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In 2018 Jeff Sessions nixed the Obama era Cole Memorandum and issued the new Department of Justice enforcement guidelines.
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In 1972 [[Tod H. Mikuriya, M.D.]] reignited the debate concerning marijuana as medicine when he published "Marijuana Medical Papers 1839-1972".
 
  
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Later, in the 1970s, a [[synthetic]] version of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug [[Marinol]].  Users reported several problems with Marinol, however, that led many to abandon the pill and resume smoking the plant.  Patients complained that the violent nausea associated with chemotherapy made swallowing pills difficult.  The effects of smoked cannabis are felt almost immediately, and is therefore easily dosed.<ref>http://www.lycos.com/info/cannabis--effects.html</ref> Marinol (Dronabinol), like ingested cannabis, is very psychoactive, and is harder to titrate than smoked cannabis.<ref>http://www.ardpark.org/reference/synmjcompare.htm</ref> Marinol has also consistently been more expensive than herbal cannabis.<ref>http://www.medicalmarijuanaprocon.org/pop/cost.htm</ref> Some studies have indicated that other chemicals in the plant may have a synergistic effect with THC.<ref>http://www.cannabis-med.org/membersonly/mo.php?aid=2001-03-04&fid=2001-03-04-7&mode=a&sid=</ref>
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California currently allows patients to grow marijuana themselves for alleged "medical" purposes, or to organize as "cooperatives."  Until recently, however, anyone could supply anyone with "medical" marijuana as long as the buyer had a doctor's note (which virtually anyone could obtain) and the person designated the supplier as his "primary caregiver".<ref>http://reason.com/archives/2009/10/23/medical-marijuana-muddle</ref>  Many people have used this as an excuse to use marijuana recreationally. "Medical" marijuana was even available from [[vending machine]]s,<ref>[http://www.planetc1.com/cgi-bin/n/v.cgi?c=1&id=1236007310 Marijuana Medicine Practices Are Hazy and Confusing], Planet Chiropratic dot com</ref><ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,326634,00.html Medical marijuana vending machines take root in LA] Fox News</ref> similar to automated prescription dispensers at some [[pharmacy|pharmacies]].<ref>[http://www.scriptpro.com/products/spud/main.htm Scriptpro: Robotic Pharmaceutical Dispensing System]</ref> Both the Drug Enformement Agency and the California Supreme Court say that such practices are illegal. One attorney has said that he considers all sale of marijuana still illegal. Additionally, the seriousness of having a marijuana vending machine for supposedly "medical" reasons is off-set by the presence of a [[Bob Marley]] poster in at least one location. Marley was a member of the Rastafari cult, which advocates the recreational use of the drug under the guise of "spiritual" reasons.
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In addition, during the 1970s and 1980s, six US states' health departments performed studies on the use of medical marijuana.  These are widely considered some of the most useful and pioneering studies on the subject.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
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In May 2001 "The Chronic Cannabis Use in the Compassionate Investigational New Drug Program: An Examination of Benefits and Adverse Effects of Legal Clinical Cannabis" (Russo, Mathre, Byrne et al) was completed. This three day examination of all major body functions of four of the five living US federal cannabis patients found that they were fine. No problems at all. See www.medicalcannabis.com for the complete report.
 
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"Every study ever conducted by the US, the UK, Australia, Spain, Canada and so on has concluded that cannabis should be allowed to be used under medical supervision immediately", Al Byrne, Patients Out of Time.
 
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== Early studies on efficacy ==
 
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=== New Mexico ===
 
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Approved by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|Food and Drug Administration]], the study included 250 patients and compared smoked cannabis to oral THC.  All participants were referred by a medical doctor and had failed to control vomiting using at least three alternative antiemetics.  Patients chose smoking cannabis or taking the THC pill.  Multiple objective and subjective standards were used to determine the effectiveness.
 
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* Conclusion: cannabis is far superior to the best available drug at the time of testing, [[Compazine]], and smoked cannabis is clearly superior to oral THC.  "More than ninety percent of the patients who received cannabis ... reported significant or total relief from nausea and vomiting."  No major side effects were reported, though three patients reported adverse reactions that did not involve cannabis alone.  The report can be read [http://www.medmjscience.org/Pages/science/pierson.bhtml here].
 
−
 
 
−
=== Tennessee ===
 
−
27 patients had failed on other [[antiemetics]] therapies, including oral THC.
 
−
 
 
−
* Conclusion: 90.4% success for smoked cannabis; 66.7% for oral THC.  "We found both marijuana smoking and THC capsules to be effective antiemetics. We found an approximate 23% higher success rate among those patients administered smoked marijuana. We found no significant differences in success rates by age group. The major reason for THC capsule failure was nausea and vomiting so severe that the patient could not retain the capsule."
 
−
 
 
−
=== California ===
 
−
A series of studies throughout the 1980s involved 90–100 patients a year.  The study was designed to make it easier for patients to enter the oral THC part of the study.  Patients who wanted to smoke cannabis had to be over 15 years old (oral THC patients had to be over 5) and use the drug only in the hospital and not at home.  Smoked cannabis patients also had to be receiving rare and painful forms of chemotherapy to qualify.
 
−
 
 
−
* Conclusion: Despite the bias towards oral THC, the California study concluded that smoked cannabis was more effective and established a safe dosage regimen that minimized adverse side effects.  The full text of the study can be seen [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/ctptoc.htm here].
 
−
[[Image:Vaporong 001.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A Vapor-Bong for use with medicinal herbs prescribed by a physician.]]
 
−
 
 
−
=== Georgia ===
 
−
119 patients that had failed using other antiemetics were randomly assigned to oral THC pills and either standardized or patient-controlled smoking of cannabis.
 
−
 
 
−
* Conclusion: All three categories were successful — patient controlled smokers at 72.2%; standardized smokers at 65.4%; oral THC at 76%.  Failure of oral THC patients was due to adverse reaction (6 out of 18) or failure to improve (9 out of 18); failure of smoking cannabis was due to intolerance for smoking (6 out of 14) or failure to improve (3 out of 14).
 
−
 
 
−
== Citations of modern medical reports on cannabis==
 
−
{{rewrite}}
 
−
*[http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01362.html Official FDA Statement Regarding Claims of Smoked Marijuana as medicine]
 
−
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/medpaper.htm Report on and index of marijuana medical studies] by Todd Mikuriya, M.D.]
 
−
* [http://jul.2006.med-bib.com/16849753.htm Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group; Strasser F, Luftner D, Possinger K, Ernst G, Ruhstaller T, Meissner W, Ko YD, Schnelle M, Reif M, Cerny T: Comparison of orally administered cannabis extract and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in treating patients with cancer-related anorexia-cachexia syndrome: a multicenter, phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial from the Cannabis-In-Cachexia-Study-Group. J Clin Oncol. 2006 Jul 20;24(21):3394-400.]
 
−
** Synthetic [[THC]] or low doses of cannabis extract administered orally for cancer-related cachexia (anorexia, weight-loss, emaciation) not better than placebo.
 
−
* [http://www.nap.edu/html/marimed/ Janet E. Joy, Stanley J. Watson, Jr., and John A Benson, Jr., "Marijuana and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base", Division of Neuroscience and Behavioral Research, Institute of Medicine (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999).]
 
−
** "The accumulated data indicate a potential therapeutic value for cannabinoid drugs, particularly for symptoms such as pain relief, control of nausea and vomiting, and appetite stimulation." and "At this point there are no convincing data to support (the concern that medical marijuana would lead to an increase in recreational use). The existing data are consistent with the idea that this would not be a problem if the medical use of marijuana were as closely regulated as other medications with abuse potential."
 
−
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/ms_mj_ref.htm Index of studies involving marijuana and multiple sclerosis]
 
−
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/mariem1.htm Doblin et al., Marijuana as Antiemetic Medicine: A Survey of Oncologists' Experiences and Attitudes," ''Journal of Clinical Oncology'', Vol. 9, No. 7, July 1991.]
 
−
* [http://www.connotea.org/add?uri=news/2005/050404/full/050404-7.html Khamsi, R: Cannabis compound benefits blood vessels. Nature, 4 Apr 2005 (premium content).]
 
−
** [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] has been found to combat formation of arterial blockages. A random survey of oncologists found that 44% had illegally recommended marijuana for the control of vomiting and that 48% would do so if it were legal; 54% thought it should be available by prescription.
 
−
* [http://www.medmjscience.org/Pages/science/vinciguerra.html Vinciguerra et al., Inhalation Marijuana as an Antiemetic for Cancer Chemotherapy," ''The New York State Journal of Medicine'', pgs., 525-527, October 1988]
 
−
** 56 Patients who had achieved no success with other antiemetics; 72% found success — the study also concluded that smoked marijuana was more effective than oral THC pills.
 
−
* [http://www.medmjscience.org/Pages/science/chang.bhtml Chang et al., Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol as an Antiemetic in Cancer Patients Receiving High Dose Methotrexate; ''Annals of Internal Medicine'', Volume 91, Number 6, pg. 819-824, December 1979]
 
−
** A double-blind controlled study found a 72% reduction in nausea and vomiting; the study also concluded that smoked marijuana was more effective than oral THC
 
−
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3774823&dopt=Citation Foltin RW, Brady JV, Fischman MW: Behavioral analysis of marijuana effects on food intake in humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1986 Sep;25(3):577-82.]; [http://aug.1988.med-bib.com/3228283.htmFoltin RW, Fischman MW, Byrne MF: Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory. Appetite. 1988 Aug;11(1):1-14.]; and [http://aug.1976.med-bib.com/822452.htm Greenberg I, Kuehnle J, Mendelson JH, Bernstein JG: Effects of marihuana use on body weight and caloric intake in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1976 Aug 26;49(1):79-84.]
 
−
** These three studies concluded that marijuana increases appetite.
 
−
* [http://oct.1975.med-bib.com/1099449.htm Sallan SE, Zinberg NE, Frei E 3rd: Antiemetic effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in patients receiving cancer chemotherapy. N Engl J Med. 1975 Oct 16;293(16):795-7.]
 
−
** Study concluded that smoked marijuana was more beneficial than synthetic THC for some patients.
 
−
* Donald P. Tashkin, MD, "Effects of Smoked Marijuana on the Lung and Its Immune Defenses: Implications for Medicinal Use in HIV-Infected Patients"; ''Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics'', Vol. 1, No. 3/4, 2001, pp. 87-102
 
−
** "Frequent marijuana use can cause airway injury, lung inflammation and impaired pulmonary defense against infection. The major potential pulmonary consequences of habitual marijuana use of particular relevance to patients with AIDS is superimposed pulmonary infection, which could be life threatening in the seriously immonocompromised patient.  In view of the immonosuppressive effect of THC, the possibility that regular marijuana use could enhance progression of HIV infection itself needs to be considered, although this possibility remains unexplored to date."
 
−
* Guy A. Cabral, PhD, "Marijuana and Cannabinoids: Effects on Infections, Immunity, and AIDS"; ''Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics'', Vol. 1, No. 3/4, 2001, pp. 61-85
 
−
** "However, few controlled longitudinal epidemiological and immunological studies have been undertaken to correlate the immunosuppressive effects of marijuana smoke or cannabinoids on the incidence of infections or viral disease in humans.  Clearly, additional investigation to resolve the long-term immunological consequences of cannabinoid and marijuana use as they relate to resistance to infections in humans is warranted."
 
−
* [http://dec.1979.med-bib.com/231736.htm Ekert H, Waters KD, Jurk IH, Mobilia J, Loughnan P: Amelioration of cancer chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Med J Aust. 1979 Dec 15;2(12):657-9.]
 
−
** In children receiving cancer chemotherapy delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has an antinausea and antivomiting effect.
 
−
* [http://jan.1980.med-bib.com/6985702.htm Sallan SE, Cronin C, Zelen M, Zinberg NE: Antiemetics in patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer: a randomized comparison of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and prochlorperazine. N Engl J Med. 1980 Jan 17;302(3):135-8.]
 
−
** THC seems to be an effective antiemetic in many patients who receive chemotherapy for cancer and for whom other antiemetics are ineffective.
 
−
*[http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/51277/ New Studies Destroy the Last Objection to Medical Marijuana]
 
−
 
 
−
==Harm reduction==
 
−
Many medical cannabis opponents note that smoked cannabis is harmful to the respiratory system. However, this harm can be minimalized or eliminated by the use of a [[vaporizer]] or [[ingesting]] the drug in an [[edible]] form or other non-smoking modes of delivery like [[tinctures]]. Vaporizers are devices that vaporize the active constituents ([[cannabinoids]]) and the [[incense|fragrant]] [[aromatic]] substances in the preparation without combusting the plant material and thus preventing the formation of toxic substances. Studies have shown that vaporizers can dramatically reduce<ref name="Gieringer 2004">''Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds'' By  D. Gieringer et.al. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, Vol. 4(1) 2004, [http://www.maps.org/mmj/Gieringer-vaporizer.pdf] </ref> or even eliminate<ref name="Hazekamp 2006">''Evaluation of a Vaporizing Device (Volcano) for the Pulmonary Administration of Tetrahydrocannabinol''. By A. HAZEKAMP, R. RUHAAK, et.al. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, VOL. 95, NO. 6, JUNE 2006 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16637053&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum abstract]</ref> the release of irritants and toxic compounds.
 
−
 
 
−
== Indications ==
 
−
According to a survey on the recommendation of cannabis in California<ref>Dale Gieringer, "Medical Use of Cannabis in California," in Franjo Grotenhermen, M.D. & Ethan Russo, M.D.,  ed.,  Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential,  Haworth Press, 2002
 
−
[http://www.canorml.org/prop/MMJIndications.htm]</ref>, cannabis is indicated for over 250 conditions. Cannabis is most importantly indicated as an [[antiemetic]] for the treatment of [[nausea]] and [[anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] associated with treatments for [[cancer]], [[AIDS]], and [[hepatitis]].
 
−
Cannabis also acts as an antispasmodic and anticonvulsant and is indicated for neurological conditions such as [[epilepsy]], [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[spasms]]. As an analgesic and an immunomodulator it is indicated for conditions such as [[migraine]], [[arthritis]], spinal and [[skeletal disorders]]. As a [[bronchodilator]] it is beneficial for [[asthma]]. it also reduces the [[intraocular pressure]] and is indicated for [[glaucoma]]. Cannabis is also used to treat some [[mood disorders]] such as [[post traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]], [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], [[panic disorder]], and [[bipolar disorder]]. It is also indicated for [[premenstrual syndrome]], [[hypertension]], and [[insomnia]].
 
−
 
 
−
In the United States, the [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] makes the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) the sole government entity responsible for ensuring the safety and efficacy of new prescription and over-the-counter drugs, overseeing the labeling and marketing of drugs, and regulating the manufacturing and packaging of drugs.<ref> [http://www.fda.gov/cder/regulatory/applications/default.htm]</ref> The FDA defines a drug as safe and effective for a specific indication if the clinical benefits to the patient are felt to outweigh any health risks the drug might pose. The FDA has not approved smoked cannabis as a legitimate medicine for any disease; <ref>[http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01362.html]</ref> And cannabis remains illegal throughout the United States and is not approved for prescription as medicine, although 12 states - Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington - approve and regulate its medical use. However, there are also 2 states, Arizona and Maryland, whose drug laws are favourable towards the medicinal use of marijuana, but which still explicitly ban it.
 
−
 
 
−
== Notable pro- and anti- medical cannabis individuals ==
 
−
=== Proponents ===
 
−
* Mary Lynn Mathre, RN, MSN, CARN. President, Patients Out of Time; Cannabis spokesperson for the Virginia Nurses Association. Editor, "Cannabis in Medical Practice: A Legal, Historical and Pharmacological Overview of the Therapeutic Use of Marijuana."
 
−
[[Image:Willie Nelson.jpg|thumb|right|Willie Nelson performing at the Chumash Casino Resort in Santa Ynez, California.<br><font color=gray>Photograph by Dwight McCann.</font>]]
 
−
* [[Willie Nelson]] - Singer and songwriter.
 
−
* [[Rick Steves]] - PBS Travel Show Host and on NORML's advisory board.
 
−
* [[Steve Kubby]] - Key Organizer of California's [[Proposition 215]] [http://www.mapinc.org/images/DennisPeronLetter.gif], Founder and National Director [[American Medical Marijuana Association]].
 
−
* [[Marc Emery]] - ''[[Cannabis Culture Magazine]]'', former seed merchant facing extradition to the US.
 
−
* [[Rob Kampia]] - Founder of [[Marijuana Policy Project]].
 
−
* [https://medicalmarijuanaofamerica.com/content/category/1/1/60/ Vanessa Nelson] - Journalist specializing in covering medical marijuana cases.
 
−
* Al Byrne, Co-founder and COO, Patients Out of Time. Co editor, Marijuana as Medicine." (video)
 
−
* [[Peter McWilliams]] - Author who used cannabis to relieve pain.
 
−
* [[Bill Maher]] - Comedian and host of ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'' on HBO.
 
−
* [[Bill Mescher]] - A [[South Carolina]] state senator who proposed legalization of medical cannabis.
 
−
* [[Ethan Nadelmann]] - President of [[Drug Policy Alliance]].
 
−
* [[Loretta Nall]] - Founder of the [[United States Marijuana party]]
 
−
* [[Angel Raich]] - U.S. activist, respondent in ''[[Gonzales v. Raich]]''.
 
−
* [[Dana Rohrabacher]] - [[United States]] Congressman who proposed a bill to stop [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] from arresting medical cannabis patients.
 
−
* [[Keith Stroup]] - Founder of [[NORML]].
 
−
* [[Ed Rosenthal]] - A horitcultarist that fights for the right to grow marijuana for medicinal purposes.
 
−
*[[Penn Jillette]] - Of Penn and Teller. Strong advocate even though he has never taken one recreational drug.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Opponents ===
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Hamid Ghodse]] - [[International Narcotics  Control Board]] president.
 
−
* [[John P. Walters]] - Current [[drug czar]] of United States.
 
−
* [[Mark Souder]] - U.S. Congressman who filed an [[amicus brief]] in support of the U.S. government in ''[[Gonzales v. Raich]]''. The federal government may ban the use of marijuana even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes.
 
−
*[[Andrea Barthwell]] - Former deputy [[drug czar]] under [[George W. Bush]].
 
−
*[[Paul Clement]] - Current [[Solicitor General]] who argued on behalf of the federal government in ''Gonzales v. Raich''.
 
−
*[[Dan Lungren]] - Former Attorney General of California who presided over crackdown of medical marijuana dispensaries.
 
−
 
 
−
==Pharmacologic THC and THC derivatives==
 
−
In the USA, the FDA has approved two cannabinoids for use as medical therapies: [[dronabinol]] and [[nabilone]].  It is important to note that these medicines are not smoked. [[Dronabinol]] is a synthetic THC medication<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00457.html| FDA Press Release]</ref>, while [[nabilone]] is a synthetic cannabinoid, never marketed in the U.S.<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html| Congressional Testimony of Robert J. Meyer, M.D., April 1, 2004]</ref>
 
−
 
−
{| class="wikitable"
 
−
|-
 
−
! Medication
 
−
! Year approved
 
−
! Licensed indications
 
−
|-
 
−
| Nabilone
 
−
| 1985
 
−
| Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics
 
−
|-
 
−
| Marinol
 
−
| 1992
 
−
| Nausea of cancer chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to other antiemetics, [[AIDS]] wasting
 
−
|}
 
−
 
 
−
These medications are usually used when first line treatments for nausea fail to work.  In extremely high doses and in rare cases there is a possibility of "[[psychotomimetic]]" side effects.  The other commonly-used antiemetic drugs are not associated with these side effects.
 
−
 
 
−
The prescription drug [[Sativex]], an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in [[Canada]] for the treatment of [[multiple sclerosis]];<ref name="SativexC">Koch, W. 23 Jun 2005. [http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada]. ''USA Today'' (online). Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007</ref> this medication may now be legally imported into the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Spain]] on prescription.<ref name="SativexEu">{{cite web|url=http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle/411/sativex.shtml|title=Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain|accessdate=2006-03-25}}</ref> Dr. William Notcutt is one of the chief researchers that has developed Sativex, he has been working with GW and founder Geoffrey Guy since the company's inception in 1998. Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study "had everything to do with politics."<ref name="Respectable Reefer">{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Gary|title=Respectable Reefer|publisher=Mother Jones|date=[[2005-11-01]]|url=http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2005/11/Respectable_Reefer-3.html|accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
== Criticism ==
 
−
{{seealso|Health issues and the effects of cannabis}}
 
−
 
 
−
On 4-20-2006, The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) issued an advisory against medical marijuana stating that, "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Furthermore, there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful." [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2006/NEW01362.html].
 
−
Some prominent American societies have been reluctant to endorse medicinal cannabis.
 
−
For example: [http://www.ama-assn.org/apps/pf_new/pf_online?f_n=browse&doc=policyfiles/HnE/H-95.952.HTM], the National Multiple Sclerosis Society [http://www.nationalmssociety.org/Sourcebook-Marijuana.asp]
 
−
, the American Academy of Ophthalmology [http://www.aao.org/education/library/cta/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=1216] and the American Cancer Society [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Smoking_Marijuana_May_Increase_Cancer_Risk.asp]. (Federal Register, 1992).
 
−
 
 
−
On June 6, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision which approved the Federal Government's position that federal law permits the prosecution of persons possessing cannabis regardless of the defense that they are medicinal cannabis patients, even in states that exempt its prohibition for medicinal purposes. [http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/06jun20051130/www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/04pdf/03-1454.pdf]
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Institute of Medicine]], run by the [[United States National Academy of Sciences]] and funded by the United States federal government, conducted a comprehensive study in 1999 to assess the potential health benefits of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids. The study concluded that smoking cannabis is not recommended for the treatment of any disease condition, but did conclude that nausea, appetite loss, pain and anxiety can all be mitigated by marijuana. While the study expressed reservations about smoked marijuana due to the health risks associated with smoking, the study team concluded that until another mode of ingestion was perfected that could provide the same relief as smoked marijuana, there was no alternative. In addition, the study pointed out the inherent difficulty in marketing a non patentable herb. Pharmaceutical companies will not substantially profit unless there is a patent. For those reasons, the Institute of Medicine concluded that there is little future in smoked cannabis as a medically approved medication. The report also concluded for certain patients, such as the terminally ill or those with debilitating symptoms, the long-term risks are not of great concern.<ref>Cannabis and Medicine: Assessing the Science Base," Institute of Medicine, 1999. </ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In an unpublished 2001 study by the Mayo Clinic, Marinol was shown to be less effective than megestrol acetate in helping cancer patients regain lost appetites.<ref>Cannabis Appetite Boost Lacking in Cancer Study" The New York Times, May 13, 2001. </ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In 2003, the [[American Academy of Ophthalmology]] released a position statement asserting that "no scientific evidence has been found that demonstrates increased benefits and/or diminished risks of marijuana use to treat glaucoma compared with the wide variety of pharmaceutical agents now available." <ref name="AOA">American Academy of Ophthalmology. [http://www.aao.org/education/library/cta/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=1216 Complementary Therapy Assessment: Marijuana in the Treatment of Glaucoma.] Retrieved August 2, 2006.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
== Legal and medical status of cannabis ==
 
−
{{main|Legal and medical status of cannabis}}
 
−
[[Image:World-cannabis-laws.png|right|thumb|401px|World laws on [[cannabis]] possession (small amount). Data is from multiple sources detailed on the [[Image talk:World-cannabis-laws.png|full source list]].  This map is a work in progress, please give corrections and additions [[User talk:CL8|here]].]]
 
−
[[Image:European-cannabis-laws.png|right|thumb|401px|European laws on [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] possession (small amount).  Data is from multiple sources detailed on the [[Image talk:World-cannabis-laws.png#Europe|full source list]].  This map is a work in progress, please give corrections and additions [[User talk:CL8|here]].]]
 
−
Cannabis is in Schedule IV of the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]], making it subject to special restrictions. [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles.htm#2 Article 2] provides for the following, in reference to Schedule IV drugs:
 
−
 
 
−
: ''A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only, including clinical trials therewith to be conducted under or subject to the direct supervision and control of the Party.''
 
−
 
 
−
This provision, while apparently providing for the limitation of cannabis to research purposes only, also seems to allow some latitude for nations to make their own judgments. The official Commentary on the Single Convention indicates that Parties are expected to make that judgment in good faith.
 
−
 
 
−
== See also ==
 
−
* Patients Out of Time
 
−
* Coalition to Reschedule Cannabis
 
−
* [[Health issues and the effects of cannabis]]
 
−
* [[Ed Rosenthal]]
 
−
* [[Tilden's Extract]]
 
−
* [[Sativex]]
 
−
* [[Victor Robinson]]
 
−
* [[Steve Kubby]]
 
−
* [[NORML]]
 
−
* [[California Cannabis Research Medical Group]]
 
−
* [[Cannabis Buyers Club]]
 
−
* [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies]]
 
−
* [[Proposition 215]]
 
−
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/ Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961], International Narcotics Control Board.
+
{{reflist}}
−
* Dominik Wujastyk, "Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine" in Ana Salema (ed.), ''Ayurveda at the Crossroads of Care and Cure'', Lisbon, [http://cham.fcsh.unl.pt/engl/ayurveda.htm Centro de História del Além-Mar], Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2002, pp.45--73.  ISBN 972-98672-5-9.  [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/papers/cannabis.pdf Early pre-publication draft.]
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes==
 
−
<div class="references-small">
 
−
<references/>
 
−
</div>
 
−
 
 
−
== External links ==
 
−
* (http://www.drugscience.org. Coalition to Reschedule Cannabis.
 
−
* (http://www.medicalcannabis.com. Patients Out of Time. Accredited cannabis education for MD,  RN and other medical and legal professionals.
 
−
*[http://www.amop.org '''Oregon Medical Marijuana Clinics:'''] Alternative Medicine Outreach Program.
 
−
*[http://www.medicalmarijuanaofamerica.com '''Medical Marijuana of America:'''] Multifaceted resource for pot prisoner support, medicinal cannabis prequalification, online MMJ community.
 
−
* [http://www.occaregivers.com OC Caregivers] - Orange County medical marijuana primary caregiver to the Orange Coast Patient Association
 
−
* [http://www.ajnag.com ajnag.com - Medical Marijuana & Doctor Locator] - A web service dedicated to fulfilling the needs of medical marijuana patients.
 
−
*[http://www.weedconnection.com Largest Website for Medical Marijuana Resources: Directory of Dispensaries, Reviews, Etc]
 
−
*[http://www.compassioncorner.org '''Cannabis Compassion Corner'''] A not-for-profit online cannabis compassion club dedicated to providing the information and resources necessary for people to grow and care for their own medical marijuana garden; comprised of caring individuals compassionate to the needs of medical marijuana users around the world.
 
−
* [http://www.gravity-vortex.com Gravity Vortex]Many medical marijuanna patients do not have the ability and or strength to work with a pipe or with rolling papers can substitute for this simple to use gravity bong that requires little effort on the patients part. Cannibus Cup award winner for many reasons and a medical users best friend.
 
−
* [http://www.420meds.tk Cannabis Medical help, Learn how to grow your own medication, help with getting started.]
 
−
* [http://www.acmed.org/english/home.htm International Association for Cannabis as Medicine (IACM)]
 
−
* [http://www.ripatients.org/ RIpatients.org] - Rhode Island Patient Advocacy Coalition - RI's grassroots coalition of medical marijuana supporters
 
−
* [http://www.marijuana-ro.com/ Marijuana Ro Medical Club] - Marijuana Ro Medical Club - Great and HUGE Medical Information and a GREAT grow guide ! Free Medical Seeds ! Come visit our community !
 
−
* [http://www.americansforsafeaccess.org/ Americans for Safe Access] - The nation’s largest organization promoting safe and legal access to cannabis for therapeutic use and research
 
−
* [http://www.waitingtoinhale.org Waiting to Inhale] - The first documentary to examine the movement to legalize cannabis for medical use
 
−
* [http://www.mediwana.org The Medical Cannabis Patients Resource - www.MediWana.org]
 
−
* [http://www.antiquecannabisbook.com The Antique Cannabis Book | Over 600 Pre-1937 Medical Cannabis Products Documented]
 
−
* [http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6849915 Medical marijuana | Reefer madness | Economist.com]
 
−
* [http://www.wamm.org The Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana]
 
−
* [http://www.letfreedomgrow.org American Alliance for Medical Cannabis]
 
−
* [http://www.compassionatecoalition.org Compassionate Coalition] Medical Marijuana Information and Discussions
 
−
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1730069 "A Response to the Supreme Court Decision to Outlaw Medicinal Marijuana" by David Lawson]
 
−
* [http://www.norml.org "NORML - National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws"]
 
−
* [http://www.medicalmarijuanaprocon.org Medical Marijuana ProCon.org] - Should marijuana be a medical option now?
 
−
* [http://www.iowamedicalmarijuana.org Iowans for Medical Marijuana] - History of the current federal classification of marijuana
 
−
* [http://www.weedspotter.com "Weedspotter"] - Medical Marijuana Forum and discussion board for patients
 
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* [http://www.cannabis.com/faqs "Medical Marijuana FAQ"] - Cannabis FAQs and further Medical Marijuana Information
 
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* [http://420-now.blogspot.com/ Make Marijuana Legal] A blog concerning the legalization of marijuana, primarily focused on Canada but international information is also available on the site.
 
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* [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=59 Bibliography of scholarly histories on cannabis and hashish]
 
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{{Cannabis resources}}
 
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[[Category:Antiemetics]]
 
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[[Category:Cannabis]]
 
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[[Category:Medical ethics]]
 
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[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
 
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[[Category:United States controlled substances law]]
 
  
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[[de:Cannabis als Medizin]]
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[[Category:Law]]
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[[fr:Cannabis médical]]
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[[Category:Medicine]]
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[[no:Cannabis (medisin)]]
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[[Category:Health]]

Latest revision as of 17:23, April 9, 2019

Marijuana vending machines have been likened to gumball machines and other candy dispensors, with an emphasis on easy, recreational use instead of responsible medical use.

"Medical" marijuana is marijuana used for its claimed analgesic or otherwise therapeutic effects (see Glaucoma, Cancer,[1][2][3][4][5] Anorexia Nervosa,[6] Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis,[7][8] Seizures, Schizophrenia,[9] Skin Tumors,[10][11] Gliomas,[12][13] Arthritis,[14] Bipolar Disorder,[15][16] Dystonia,[17] Epilepsy,[18][19][20] Hepatitis C,[21] Depression,[22][23][24][25] Leukemia,[26] Huntington's Disease,[27] Parkinson's Disease,[28] Pruritus,[29][30] Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA),[31] Sickle-Cell Disease,[32] Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD),[33] Sleep Apnea,[34] and Artherosclerosis[35]).

Some studies claim that Cannabidiol, a chemical compound found in marijuana, inhibits cancer cell growth in lab animals.[36] Recent studies have claimed cannabidiol to be as effective as atypical antipsychotics in treating schizophrenia.,[37] and marijuana is commonly viewed as a natural alternative to any otherwise synthetic pharmaceutical drugs. It has also been claimed to increase brain cell growth [38] and increase appetite, which its proponents claim can be useful for patients undergoing chemotherapy. Marijuana has been used to treat anorexia and has been used as an antiemetic.[39] Harvard University conducted a study on the effect of Δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol on certain lung cancers. The result of the test was that THC can reduce tumor size by as much as half.[40] In addition to a significant reduction in tumor size, there was a reduction in lesions on the lungs by 60%, and a reduction in protein markers associated with the progression of cancer.[41] This study claims that not only can THC treat the side effects of cancer treatment, but can stop the spread of cancer, repair damage caused by tumors, and even reduce the size of tumors.

In addition to the claimed positive effect on cancer treatment symptoms and cancer itself, marijuana is used to help patients afflicted with ALS.[42]

Marijuana is an antispasmodic and is used in the treatment of seizures.[43] Marijuana is also used in the treatment of migraines, arthritis,[44] depression,[45] and glaucoma. However the effect of marijuana on intraocular pressure (IOC) is not as effective as those offered by other drugs on the market.[46]

Critics, however, doubt that there are any beneficial medicinal effects of marijuana that cannot be duplicated by other, less-addictive drugs. They also charge that efforts to legalize "medical" marijuana are merely a pretext for general decriminalization of a common "gateway drug" for recreational use.

Several states have legalized "medical" marijuana. Under the Bush administration, the federal government ignored such state laws, viewing them as unconstitutional interference with federal law. California's law was overturned by the Supreme Court in the case Gonzales v. Raich,[47] which said that Congress can "regulate purely local activities that are part of an economic 'class of activities' that have a substantial effect on interstate commerce." This decision has been criticized by numerous conservatives and libertarians as an unwarranted expansion of Federal power. Also, Barack Obama has directed Federal prosecutors to avoid prosecuting activities legal under such state laws.[48]

In 2018 Jeff Sessions nixed the Obama era Cole Memorandum and issued the new Department of Justice enforcement guidelines.

California currently allows patients to grow marijuana themselves for alleged "medical" purposes, or to organize as "cooperatives." Until recently, however, anyone could supply anyone with "medical" marijuana as long as the buyer had a doctor's note (which virtually anyone could obtain) and the person designated the supplier as his "primary caregiver".[49] Many people have used this as an excuse to use marijuana recreationally. "Medical" marijuana was even available from vending machines,[50][51] similar to automated prescription dispensers at some pharmacies.[52] Both the Drug Enformement Agency and the California Supreme Court say that such practices are illegal. One attorney has said that he considers all sale of marijuana still illegal. Additionally, the seriousness of having a marijuana vending machine for supposedly "medical" reasons is off-set by the presence of a Bob Marley poster in at least one location. Marley was a member of the Rastafari cult, which advocates the recreational use of the drug under the guise of "spiritual" reasons.

References

  1. ↑ Casanova ML, Blázquez C, Martínez-Palacio J, et al. (January 2003). "Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors" (Free full text). The Journal of Clinical Investigation 111 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1172/JCI16116. ISSN 0021-9738. PMID 12511587. 
  2. ↑ Patsos HA, Hicks DJ, Dobson RR, et al. (December 2005). "The endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, induces cell death in colorectal carcinoma cells: a possible role for cyclooxygenase 2". Gut 54 (12): 1741–50. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.073403. ISSN 0017-5749. PMID 16099783. 
  3. ↑ Lorente M, Carracedo A, Torres S, et al. (February 2009). "Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis". Glia 57 (13): NA. doi:10.1002/glia.20856. ISSN 0894-1491. PMID 19229996. 
  4. ↑ Ramer R, Hinz B (January 2008). "Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1" (Free full text). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 100 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm268. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 18159069. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18159069. 
  5. ↑ Powles T, te Poele R, Shamash J, et al. (February 2005). "Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannabinoid receptors and the MAPK pathway" (Free full text). Blood 105 (3): 1214–21. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182. ISSN 0006-4971. PMID 15454482. http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15454482. 
  6. ↑ Grotenhermen, Russo. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential . New York: The Hawthorn Integrative Healing Press, 2002,. Grotenhermen, “Review of Therapeutic Effects.” Chapter 11, p. 128
  7. ↑ Carter GT, Rosen BS (July 2001). "Marijuana in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care 18 (4): 264–70. doi:10.1177/104990910101800411. ISSN 1049-9091. PMID 11467101. 
  8. ↑ Weydt P, Hong S, Witting A, Möller T, Stella N, Kliot M (September 2005). "Cannabinol delays symptom onset in SOD1 (G93A) transgenic mice without affecting survival". Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Other Motor Neuron Disorders 6 (3): 182–4. doi:10.1080/14660820510030149. ISSN 1466-0822. PMID 16183560. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a723777607. 
  9. ↑ Zuardi A.W., Crippa J.A.S., Hallak J.E.C., Moreira F.A., Guimarães F.S. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug (PDF) 2006. Vol. 39. Page 421-9. ISSN 0100-879X
  10. ↑ Casanova ML, Blázquez C, Martínez-Palacio J, et al. (January 2003). "Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors" (Free full text). The Journal of Clinical Investigation 111 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1172/JCI16116. ISSN 0021-9738. PMID 12511587. 
  11. ↑ Science Daily 4/7/2007
  12. ↑ Lorente M, Carracedo A, Torres S, et al. (February 2009). "Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis". Glia 57 (13): NA. doi:10.1002/glia.20856. ISSN 0894-1491. PMID 19229996. 
  13. ↑ Ramer R, Hinz B (January 2008). "Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1" (Free full text). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 100 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm268. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 18159069. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18159069. 
  14. ↑ Malfait AM, Gallily R, Sumariwalla PF, et al. (August 2000). "The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97 (17): 9561–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.160105897. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 10920191. PMC Template:=pmcentrez&artidTemplate:=16904 16904. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10920191. 
  15. ↑ Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB (April 1998). "The use of cannabis as a mood stabilizer in bipolar disorder: anecdotal evidence and the need for clinical research". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 30 (2): 171–7. ISSN 0279-1072. PMID 9692379. http://www.ukcia.org/research/TheUseofCannabisasaMoodStabilizerinBipolarDisorder.html. 
  16. ↑ Ashton CH, Moore PB, Gallagher P, Young AH (May 2005). "Cannabinoids in bipolar affective disorder: a review and discussion of their therapeutic potential". Journal of Psychopharmacology 19 (3): 293–300. doi:10.1177/0269881105051541. ISSN 0269-8811. PMID 15888515. 
  17. ↑ Fox SH, Kellett M, Moore AP, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM (January 2002). "Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the potential of cannabinoid receptor stimulation in the treatment of dystonia". Movement Disorders 17 (1): 145–9. doi:10.1002/mds.1280. ISSN 0885-3185. PMID 11835452. 
  18. ↑ Cannabis could be used to treat epilepsy. Telegraph (2011-04-10). Retrieved on 2011-04-20.
  19. ↑ Marsicano G, Goodenough S, Monory K, et al. (October 2003). "CB1 cannabinoid receptors and on-demand defense against excitotoxicity". Science 302 (5642): 84–8. doi:10.1126/science.1088208. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 14526074. 
  20. ↑ Bacci A, Huguenard JR, Prince DA (September 2004). "Long-lasting self-inhibition of neocortical interneurons mediated by endocannabinoids". Nature 431 (7006): 312–6. doi:10.1038/nature02913. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15372034. Lay summary – Science Daily (16 September 2004). 
  21. ↑ Sylvestre DL, Clements BJ, Malibu Y (October 2006). "Cannabis use improves retention and virological outcomes in patients treated for hepatitis C". European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology 18 (10): 1057–63. doi:10.1097/01.meg.0000216934.22114.51. ISSN 0954-691X. PMID 16957511. 
  22. ↑ Bambico FR, Katz N, Debonnel G, Gobbi G (October 2007). "Cannabinoids elicit antidepressant-like behavior and activate serotonergic neurons through the medial prefrontal cortex" (Free full text). The Journal of Neuroscience 27 (43): 11700–11. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1636-07.2007. ISSN 0270-6474. PMID 17959812. http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17959812. Lay summary – Fox News Channel (25 October 2007). 
  23. ↑ Denson TF, Earleywine M (April 2006). "Decreased depression in marijuana users". Addictive Behaviors 31 (4): 738–42. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.052. ISSN 0306-4603. PMID 15964704. http://www.doctordeluca.com/Library/WOD/WPS3-MedMj/DecreasedDepressionInMjUsers05.pdf. 
  24. ↑ Jiang W, Zhang Y, Xiao L, et al. (November 2005). "Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects" (Free full text). The Journal of Clinical Investigation 115 (11): 3104–16. doi:10.1172/JCI25509. ISSN 0021-9738. PMID 16224541. 
  25. ↑ El-Remessy AB, Al-Shabrawey M, Khalifa Y, Tsai NT, Caldwell RB, Liou GI (January 2006). "Neuroprotective and blood-retinal barrier-preserving effects of cannabidiol in experimental diabetes" (Free full text). The American Journal of Pathology 168 (1): 235–44. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2006.050500. ISSN 0002-9440. PMID 16400026. PMC Template:=pmcentrez&artidTemplate:=1592672 1592672. http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16400026. 
  26. ↑ Powles T, te Poele R, Shamash J, et al. (February 2005). "Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannabinoid receptors and the MAPK pathway" (Free full text). Blood 105 (3): 1214–21. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182. ISSN 0006-4971. PMID 15454482. http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15454482. 
  27. ↑ Cannabidiol: The Wonder Drug of the 21st Century?. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. Retrieved on 10 August 2009.Template:Verify credibility
  28. ↑ Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC (February 2005). "Endocannabinoid-mediated rescue of striatal LTD and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease models". Nature 445 (7128): 643–7. doi:10.1038/nature05506. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17287809. Lay summary – Stanford University School of Medicine (7 February 2007). 
  29. ↑ Szepietowski JC, Szepietowski T, Reich A (2005). "Efficacy and tolerance of the cream containing structured physiological lipids with endocannabinoids in the treatment of uremic pruritus: a preliminary study". Acta Dermatovenerologica Croatica 13 (2): 97–103. ISSN 1330-027X. PMID 16324422. 
  30. ↑ Bergasa NV (December 2005). "The pruritus of cholestasis". Journal of Hepatology 43 (6): 1078–88. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2005.09.004. ISSN 0168-8278. PMID 16253381. 
  31. ↑ Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stavri M, Smith E, Rahman MM (2008). "Antibacterial Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: A Structure—Activity Study" (PDF). J Nat Prod 71 (8): 1427–30. doi:10.1021/np8002673. PMID 18681481. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/np8002673. Retrieved 6 November 2010. Lay summary – WebMD (4 September 2008). 
  32. ↑ Cannabis use in sickle cell disease: A questionnaire study. Retrieved on 9 June 2010.
  33. ↑ "Science: Endocannabinoids extinguish bad memories in the brain". IACM-Bulletin (International Association for Cannabis as Medicine). 4 August 2002. http://www.cannabis-med.org/english/bulletin/ww_en_db_cannabis_artikel.php?id=123#1. Retrieved 11 August 2009. 
  34. ↑ Carley DW, Paviovic S, Janelidze M, Radulovacki M (June 2002). "Functional role for cannabinoids in respiratory stability during sleep" (Free full text). Sleep 25 (4): 391–8. ISSN 0161-8105. PMID 12071539. http://www.scholaruniverse.com/ncbi-linkout?id=12071539. 
  35. ↑ Steffens, S; Veillard, NR; Arnaud, C; Pelli, G; Burger, F; Staub, C; Karsak, M; Zimmer, A et al. (16 April 2005). "Cannabis may help keep arteries clear". New Scientist 434 (7034): 782. doi:10.1038/nature03389. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15815632. 
  36. ↑ Mechoulam R., Peters M., Murillo-Rodriguez E., Hanus L.O. Cannabidiol - recent advances. Chemistry & Biodiversity. August 2007. Vol. 4, Issue 8. Page 1678-92. pmid=17712814. doi=10.1002/cbdv.200790147
  37. ↑ Zuardi A.W., Crippa J.A.S., Hallak J.E.C., Moreira F.A., Guimarães F.S. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug (PDF) 2006. Vol. 39. Page 421-9. ISSN 0100-879X
  38. ↑ science: Study shows marijuana increases brain cell growth
  39. ↑ National Cancer Institute
  40. ↑ Science Daily 4/7/2007
  41. ↑ Science Daily 4/17/2007
  42. ↑ American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine
  43. ↑ National Academies Press: Marijuana and muscle spasticity
  44. ↑ Online Library: Treatment of adjuvant arthritis in rats with anti-inflammatory drugs
  45. ↑ Interesting Facts: Facts about marijuana
  46. ↑ National Eye Institue: Glaucoma and Marijuana use
  47. ↑ Full text of majority opinion, Gonzales v. Raich
  48. ↑ "Memo to Justice Department attorneys", 19 October 2009
  49. ↑ http://reason.com/archives/2009/10/23/medical-marijuana-muddle
  50. ↑ Marijuana Medicine Practices Are Hazy and Confusing, Planet Chiropratic dot com
  51. ↑ Medical marijuana vending machines take root in LA Fox News
  52. ↑ Scriptpro: Robotic Pharmaceutical Dispensing System
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