Changes

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent to others.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent to others.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that could hold much more cargo than previous ships.  The more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profits would be, as cargo consisted of goods that could be picked up in a faraway land and sold upon the ship’s return to its homeland.  European demand was strong for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottomans.   

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that were faster and more maneuverable in shallow water than previous designs.  They could also hold a fair amount of spices, and the more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profitability would be.  European demand was strong for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottomans.   

The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration, conversion and colonization.   

The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration, conversion and colonization.   

===Spanish Exploration===

===Spanish Exploration===

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492 — during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to eradicate Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, this was accomplished first through the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this resulted in an economic and academic setback for Spain, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492 — during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to eradicate Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, it ultimately succeeded in the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this resulted in an economic and academic setback for Spain, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

It was during this time that a young Italian by the name of Christopher Columbus first approached the Portuguese King John II to ask him for financial support.  Columbus, like others from the Italian city of Genoa, was an expert mariner, having started as early as the age of 14.  He had studied the works of Ptolemy on his own; Columbus did not attend formal school, just as homeschoolers do not today.  Columbus at all times was a devout Christian, writing frequently about his faith in his diary.  His desire to sail to India was motivated in large part by his attempt to spread the Christian faith.  He repeatedly cited a desire to convert pagans to Christianity when he sought support for his voyage.  Late in life, even when treated as a prisoner, he sought to devote all his money and efforts towards winning back Jesus Christ’s Holy Sepulchre (burial cave) from Muslims in the Holy Land.  

It was during this time that a young Italian by the name of Christopher Columbus first approached the Portuguese King John II to ask him for financial support.  Columbus, like others from the Italian city of Genoa, was an expert mariner, having started as early as the age of 14.  He had studied the works of Ptolemy on his own; Columbus did not attend formal school, just as homeschoolers do not today.  Columbus at all times was a devout Christian, writing frequently about his faith in his diary.  His desire to sail to India was motivated in large part by his attempt to spread the Christian faith.  He repeatedly cited a desire to convert pagans to Christianity when he sought support for his voyage.  Late in life, even when treated as a prisoner, he sought to devote all his money and efforts towards winning back Jesus Christ’s Holy Sepulchre (burial cave) from Muslims in the Holy Land.  

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation.”  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of Magellan’s approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation.”  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of Magellan’s approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

As a result of Magellan’s journey, Spain gained control of many South American territories, including Mexico and Peru.  Spain also obtained control over the Philippines in the Far East.  Spanish warrior Hernando Cortes led the conquest of Mexico, with the initial help of the Aztecs, many of whom believed Cortes was their god Quetzalcoatl (who, conveniently for the Spanish, was expected to appear that very year).  Cortes captured the Aztec ruler Moctezuma (popularly known as “Montezuma”) and conquered their empire.  Cortes was also aided by an Aztec woman named Malinche, who served as a guide and translator.  Cortes burned the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City in its place.   

As a result of Magellan’s journey, Spain gained control of many South American territories, including Peru.  Spain also obtained control over the Philippines in the Far East.  Spanish warrior Hernando Cortes led the conquest of Mexico, with the initial help of the Aztecs, many of whom believed Cortes was their god Quetzalcoatl (who, conveniently for the Spanish, was expected to appear that very year).  Cortes captured the Aztec ruler Moctezuma (popularly known as “Montezuma”) and conquered their empire.  Cortes was also aided by an Aztec woman named Malinche, who served as a guide and translator.  Cortes burned the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City in its place.   

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peru city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas, the vast majority of which was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses and superior weapons, and the South Americans were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and simply giving them a bunch of blankets exposed to the deadly germ could end up killing many natives, although it seems doubtful that the Spanish conquerors would intentionally kill women and children that way.  Such biological warfare may reflect modern imagination more than historical fact.

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peru city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas, the vast majority of which was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses and superior weapons, and the South Americans were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and some historians claim that the Spanish intentionally spread the deadly disease by giving the natives blankets that carried the germ.  There is one defect to that anti-Christian theory: the germ theory was not discovered until the 19th century!  No one knew that diseases were spread by germs in the 1500s, so the story is pure fiction.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish, but it is usually true that “to the victors go the spoils.”

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish, but it is usually true that “to the victors go the spoils.”

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

In Spain, Philip II (1638-1715), who was the great-grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand, worked to keep Spain as Catholic, and viewed Elizabeth I of England as his main rival.  But his mighty Spanish Armada was defeated by a quicker English fleet in 1588.  In 1579, William of Orange led the Netherlands in a revolt against their Spanish masters.  These two losses contributed to the weakening of Spanish power.  

In Spain, Philip II (1556-1598), who was the great-grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand, worked to keep Spain as Catholic, and viewed Elizabeth I of England as his main rival.  But his mighty Spanish Armada was defeated by a quicker English fleet in 1588.  In 1579, William of Orange led the Netherlands in a revolt against their Spanish masters.  These two losses contributed to the weakening of Spanish power.  

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs, and drew a stunning image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs, and drew a stunning image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1533 to 1547.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Frederick won the territory Silesia.   

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Frederick won the territory Silesia.   

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.