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Three times during the 1500s and 1600s, Muslims attempted unsuccessfully to conquer Europe (recall that centuries earlier Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  Europeans defeated the Muslim Ottoman Turks at the Siege of Vienna in 1529.  Then Europeans also prevailed against Muslim forces at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

Three times during the 1500s and 1600s, Muslims attempted unsuccessfully to conquer Europe (recall that centuries earlier Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  Europeans defeated the Muslim Ottoman Turks at the Siege of Vienna in 1529.  Then Europeans also prevailed against Muslim forces at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

On September 11, 1683, Muslims made another major attempt to conquer Europe, as a massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim force.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

On September 11, 1683, Muslims made another major attempt to conquer Europe, as a massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim forces.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name="KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name="KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

[[Image:Caravel.jpg|right|thumb|A caravel]]

[[Image:Caravel.jpg|right|thumb|A caravel]]

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that were faster and more maneuverable in shallow water than previous designs (see right).  They could also hold a fair amount of spices, and the more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profitability would be.  European demand for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, was strong, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottoman Muslims.   

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that were faster and more maneuverable in shallow water than previous designs (see right).  These ships could also hold a substantial amount of spices, and the more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profitability would be.  European demand for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, was strong, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottoman Muslims.   

The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration, conversion and colonization.   

The discovery of new western routes accidentally led to the discovery of lands in the New World (Western Hemisphere).  Portugal and Spain then emerged as the two major players in what was to become an intense European competition for exploration and colonization.   

===Portuguese Exploration===

===Portuguese Exploration===

The Portuguese initiated the age of exploration in Europe as early as about 1419, when Prince Henry the Navigator established his School of Navigation and made it his life’s work to explore the West African coast and reach the Indian Ocean.  His ships reached as far as Sierra Leone, but he failed to reach India.  Another explorer named Bartholomew Diaz likewise failed to reach India, but he did manage to sail around the tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope) in 1487 and thereby establish the route to India.   

The Portuguese initiated the age of exploration in Europe as early as about 1419, when Prince Henry the Navigator established his School of Navigation and made it his life’s work to explore the West African coast and reach the Indian Ocean.  His ships reached as far as Sierra Leone, but he failed to reach India.  Another explorer named Bartholomew Diaz likewise failed to reach India, but he did manage to sail around the tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope) in 1487 and thereby establish a route to India.   

In 1492, with funding from Spain (see below), Christopher Columbus embarked on his famous voyage with the dream of reaching India, and he failed in that goal also.  It was Vasco da Gama who finally reached India by sailing eastward around Africa and up the East African coast between 1497 and 1499, with the help of the powerful monsoon winds.  Shortly thereafter, regular trade was established with India under the Portuguese King Manuel, and conflict began with the Muslims over dominance of Indian Ocean trade.

In 1492, with funding from Spain (see below), Christopher Columbus embarked on his famous voyage with the dream of reaching India, and he failed in that goal also (but discovered America!).  It was Vasco da Gama who finally reached India by sailing eastward around Africa and up the East African coast between 1497 and 1499, with the help of the powerful monsoon winds.  Shortly thereafter, regular trade was established with India under the Portuguese King Manuel, and conflict began with the Muslims over dominance of Indian Ocean trade.

Later, with funding and men from Spain (see below), the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan became the first to lead an expedition around the globe.  

Later, with funding and men from Spain (see below), the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan became the first to lead an expedition around the globe.  

King John II of Portugal denied Columbus’s request to fund his voyage across the Atlantic.  Indeed, Columbus was ridiculed for seeking to reach India by sailing west rather than east.   

King John II of Portugal denied Columbus’s request to fund his voyage across the Atlantic.  Indeed, Columbus was ridiculed for seeking to reach India by sailing west rather than east.   

The funding for Columbus came from Spain instead.  Though Columbus was Italian, it was Spain that financed his voyages as the strain of fighting the Muslims subsided.  Isabella and Ferdinand felt secure in granting the Genoese upstart Christopher Columbus his long-awaited funds.  Beginning on August 3, 1492, Columbus embarked on four voyages, becoming perhaps the first European to discover the New World, although at first he believed he had reached India (hence his name for the inhabitants of the New World:  “Indians”).  The discoveries by Columbus included the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, San Salvador, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Honduras.  Columbus, the master mariner that he was, subsequently sailed back to Europe and then again to the Caribbean, and was able to find the exact same locations on his return voyage.  Columbus’ astounding success presented an increasing challenge to Spain’s Portuguese rivals.

The funding for Columbus came from Spain instead.  Though Columbus was Italian, it was Spain that financed his voyages as the strain of fighting the Muslims subsided.  Isabella and Ferdinand felt secure in granting the Genoese upstart Christopher Columbus his long-awaited funds.  Beginning on August 3, 1492, Columbus embarked on four voyages, becoming perhaps the first European to discover the New World, although he initially believed he had reached India (hence his name for the inhabitants of the New World:  “Indians”).  The discoveries by Columbus included the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, San Salvador, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Honduras.  Columbus, the master mariner that he was, subsequently sailed back to Europe and then again to the Caribbean, and was able to find the exact same locations on his return voyage.  Columbus’ astounding success presented an increasing challenge to Spain’s Portuguese rivals.

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation,” which was 50 degrees longitude (north-to-south) in the Western Hemisphere.  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and the Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of Magellan’s approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation,” which was 50 degrees longitude (north-to-south) in the Western Hemisphere.  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and the Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of Magellan’s approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peruvian city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas. The vast majority of silver obtained was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses and superior weapons, and the South Americans were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and some historians claim that the Spanish intentionally spread the deadly disease by giving the natives blankets that carried the germ.  There is one defect to that anti-Christian theory: the germ theory was not discovered until the 19th century!  No one knew that diseases were spread by germs in the 1500s, so the story is pure fiction.

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peruvian city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas. The vast majority of silver obtained was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses and superior weapons, and the South Americans were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and some historians claim that the Spanish intentionally spread the deadly disease by giving the natives blankets that carried the germ.  There is one defect to that anti-Christian theory: the germ theory was not discovered until the 19th century!  No one knew that diseases were spread by germs in the 1500s, so the story is pure fiction.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are now criticized as having been unfair.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish, but it was typical throughout history for conquerors to put the conquered people to work, as in "to the victors go the spoils."

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are now criticized as having been unfair.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.  Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish, but it was typical throughout history for conquerors to put the conquered people to work, as in the saying, "to the victors go the spoils."

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) — a conflict brought to America in the form of the French and Indian War.  This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) — a conflict brought to America as the "French and Indian War." This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

The Seven Years War in Europe, of which the French and Indian War was a small part in North America, consisted of 20 major battles and ended up taking the lives of perhaps a million people.  Britain and France fought in both Europe and North America; Spain and Portugal fought in South America. The war reached every inhabited continent except Australia, which had been discovered in only the 1600s and was not yet well-settled by Europeans.  France, Russia, Sweden, Poland and Austria were allied against Britain and Prussia in the struggle for control of Silesia, a region of Eastern Europe that is mostly part of Poland today.

The Seven Years War in Europe, of which the French and Indian War was a small part in North America, consisted of 20 major battles and ended up taking the lives of perhaps a million people.  Britain and France fought in both Europe and North America; Spain and Portugal fought in South America. The war reached every inhabited continent except Australia, which had been discovered in only the 1600s and was not yet well-settled by Europeans.  France, Russia, Sweden, Poland and Austria were allied against Britain and Prussia in the struggle for control of Silesia, a region of Eastern Europe that is mostly part of Poland today.