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===Spanish Exploration===

===Spanish Exploration===

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492—during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to defeat Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, this was accomplished first through the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this caused Spain an economic and academic setback, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

The Spanish entered the scene in the year 1492 — during the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were working hard to eradicate Islam and establish Christianity as the only religion in Spain.  Known as the “Reconquista” (or Reconquest) of Spain, this was accomplished first through the reconquest of Granada, the last Muslim city in Spain.  As explained in the prior Lecture, Queen Isabella ordered all Muslims and Jewish residents to convert or leave Spain.  Initially, this resulted in an economic and academic setback for Spain, as Jewish residents had comprised a large number of scholars and merchants.

It was during this time that a young Italian by the name of Christopher Columbus first approached the Portuguese King John II to ask him for financial support.  Columbus, like many from the Italian city of Genoa, was an expert mariner, having started as early as the age of 14.  He had studied the works of Ptolemy on his own; Columbus did not attend formal school, just as homeschoolers do not today.  Columbus at all times was a devout Christian, writing frequently about his faith in his diary.  His desire to sail to India was motivated in large part by his attempt to spread the Christian faith.  He repeatedly cited a desire to convert pagans to Christianity when he sought support for his voyage.  Late in life, even when treated as a prisoner, he sought to devote all his money and efforts towards winning back Jesus Christ’s Holy Sepulchre (burial cave) from Muslims in the Holy Land.  

It was during this time that a young Italian by the name of Christopher Columbus first approached the Portuguese King John II to ask him for financial support.  Columbus, like others from the Italian city of Genoa, was an expert mariner, having started as early as the age of 14.  He had studied the works of Ptolemy on his own; Columbus did not attend formal school, just as homeschoolers do not today.  Columbus at all times was a devout Christian, writing frequently about his faith in his diary.  His desire to sail to India was motivated in large part by his attempt to spread the Christian faith.  He repeatedly cited a desire to convert pagans to Christianity when he sought support for his voyage.  Late in life, even when treated as a prisoner, he sought to devote all his money and efforts towards winning back Jesus Christ’s Holy Sepulchre (burial cave) from Muslims in the Holy Land.  

King John II denied Columbus’s request to fund his voyage across the Atlantic.  Indeed, Columbus was ridiculed for seeking to reach India by sailing west rather than east.   

King John II of Portugal denied Columbus’s request to fund his voyage across the Atlantic.  Indeed, Columbus was ridiculed for seeking to reach India by sailing west rather than east.   

The funding for Columbus came from Spain instead.  Though Columbus was Italian, it was Spain who financed his voyages as the strain of fighting the Muslims subsided.  Isabella and Ferdinand felt secure in granting the Genoese upstart Christopher Columbus his long-awaited funds.  Beginning on August 3, 1492, Columbus embarked on four voyages, perhaps becoming the first European to discover the New World, although at first he believed he had reached India (hence his name for the inhabitants of the New World:  “Indians”).  The discoveries by Columbus included the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, San Salvador, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Honduras.  Columbus’ astounding success presented an increasing challenge to Spain’s Portuguese rivals.  

The funding for Columbus came from Spain instead.  Though Columbus was Italian, it was Spain who financed his voyages as the strain of fighting the Muslims subsided.  Isabella and Ferdinand felt secure in granting the Genoese upstart Christopher Columbus his long-awaited funds.  Beginning on August 3, 1492, Columbus embarked on four voyages, perhaps becoming the first European to discover the New World, although at first he believed he had reached India (hence his name for the inhabitants of the New World:  “Indians”).  The discoveries by Columbus included the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, San Salvador, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and Honduras.  Columbus, the master mariner that he was, subsequently sailed back to Europe and then again to the Caribbean, and was able to find the exact same locations on his return voyage.  Columbus’ astounding success presented an increasing challenge to Spain’s Portuguese rivals.

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation.”  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

The pope finally resolved this rivalry between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which established an 1100-mile long “Line of Demarcation.”  This division of world territories gave Portugal trading rights in India, China, the East Indies, East Brazil and Spanish Americas.  Spain was given control of the remaining, vast majority of the Americas.  Ferdinand Magellan then led the first successful voyage to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.  Although Magellan was killed by Philippine natives before completing the last leg of the journey, he was the first to sail around the tip of South America to enter the Pacific Ocean.  Only 18 of Magellan’s approximately 250 sailors made it back to Spain three years later, in 1522.   

As a result of Magellan’s journey, Spain gained control of many South American territories, including Mexico and Peru.  Spain also obtained control over the Philippines in the Far East.  Spanish warrior Hernando Cortes led the conquest of Mexico, with the initial help of the Aztecs, many of whom believed Cortes was their god Quetzalcoatl (who, conveniently for the Spanish, was expected to appear that very year).  Cortes captured the Aztec ruler Moctezuma (popularly known as “Montezuma”) and conquered their empire.  Cortes was also aided by an Aztec woman named Malinche, who served as a guide and translator.  Cortes burned the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City in its place.   

As a result of Magellan’s journey, Spain gained control of many South American territories, including Mexico and Peru.  Spain also obtained control over the Philippines in the Far East.  Spanish warrior Hernando Cortes led the conquest of Mexico, with the initial help of the Aztecs, many of whom believed Cortes was their god Quetzalcoatl (who, conveniently for the Spanish, was expected to appear that very year).  Cortes captured the Aztec ruler Moctezuma (popularly known as “Montezuma”) and conquered their empire.  Cortes was also aided by an Aztec woman named Malinche, who served as a guide and translator.  Cortes burned the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City in its place.   

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, betraying and eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peru city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas, the vast majority of which was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses, superior weapons, and devastating European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and simply giving them a bunch of blankets exposed to the deadly germ could end up killing many natives.   

Francisco Pizzaro led the conquest of Peru, eventually killing their emperor, Atahualpa.  The ancient Peru city of Cuzco was completely destroyed and replaced with the city of Lima.  While in Peru, Pizzaro also discovered the greatest silver mine in the Americas, the vast majority of which was traded with China, whose economy was based on silver.  Both Cortes’ and Pizzaro’s conquests were facilitated by the use of horses and superior weapons, and the South Americans were also devastated by European diseases like smallpox.  The native population had no immunity to such disease, and simply giving them a bunch of blankets exposed to the deadly germ could end up killing many natives, although it seems doubtful that the Spanish conquerors would intentionally kill women and children that way.  Such biological warfare may reflect modern imagination more than historical fact.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor.   Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish.

Using the Spanish system of “encomiendas”, many of the South American natives became slaves to their Spanish conquerors.  A Dominican monk and missionary, [[Bartholomew de Las Casas]], sent sensational descriptions to the Spanish government of the supposed atrocities committed against the “patient, meek and peaceful” natives by the Spanish conquistadors, whom he described as “cruel tigers, wolves and lions.”  Although some of what Las Casas said was true, historical research has proved most of it to be false and exaggerated.  However dishonest his methods may have been, Las Casas’ reports eventually led to the king of Spain issuing “New Laws,” by which exploitation of the natives was ended by the replacement of the old “encomiendas” with the new “repartimientos”.  Both systems are criticized as unfair today.  The system of “encomiendas” was based on royal grants of land, while the system of “repartimientos” was based on gifts of Indian labor. Either way, the Indians ended up working for the Spanish, but it is usually true that “to the victors go the spoils.”

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===