American History Lecture Four

Here are additional tips on answer multiple-choice history questions:

1. Determine the period in time.
2. Determine in your mind who was president. Was there a war going on? If it was during colonial times, what was going on?
3. Have mental landmarks for each time period: something that you know very well, so that you find your perspective on that period of time. It is like knowing how to find a place in your town, and then knowing how to find somewhere else in relation to it.

After 1788, the easiest "landmark" for each period is the President. That does not mean he is the most important person. Not by a long shot. But being able to identify the President is an easy way to organize the events. By the end of this course, I should be able to name any date and you should be able to say who was President.

Let's try it now: 1798. Who was president?1793? 1790?

In this class we have reached 1800. The federal or national government has been in operation for a dozen years. How did it pay for its operations? George Washington was President. Did he serve for free? Who paid for his buildings? Where was his office?

Tariffs on imports supported the federal government all the way until World War I in 1916. What is a tariff?

A tariff is a tax imposed on imported goods, which are goods brought into our country from another country. When a foreign country sent goods to the United States, our federal government would impose a "tariff" or surcharge on those goods as a condition for them to be sold in this country. The more goods we import, the more the revenue from the tariffs. Tariffs were ultimately replaced by the income tax on individuals as the primary means for supporting our government, because President Woodrow Wilson thought tariffs caused wars. Others think tariffs are the best way to raise revenue for the government, far better than income taxes. Some tariffs still exist today.

Our nation's capital was located in marshy land now known as the District of Columbia as a compromise. Our capital was initially in New York City, but then Hamilton brokered a compromise with Jefferson whereby the capital would move to Philadelphia in 1791 for ten years, and then in D.C. starting in 1800. In exchange, Hamilton was able to have the federal government assume the war debt. So Washington suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion by riding from Philadelphia, not from Washington, D.C., because the capital was in Philadelphia at that time.

This class we focus on the period from 1800 to 1840.

Revolution of 1800

Jefferson learned the art of politics by first serving in the House of Burgesses in Virginia (an early Virginia legislative system similar to what became Congress.) Jefferson was a brilliant writer, but a terrible speaker. In fact, he avoided public speaking whenever possible. He rarely spoke when he served in the Continental Congress, and when he did speak he expressed anti-religious views that were not shared by others. John Adams wrote about Jefferson:

Mr. Jefferson had been now about a Year a Member of Congress, but had attended his Duty in the House but a very small part of the time and when there had never spoken in public: and during the whole Time I satt [sic] with him in Congress, I never heard him utter three Sentences together. The most of a Speech he ever made in my hearing was a gross insult on Religion, in one or two Sentences, for which I gave him immediately the Reprehension, which he richly merited.

After becoming president, Jefferson remained so afraid of speaking that he refused to read his annual address to Congress, instead insisting on sending it to Congress in written form. On other occasions he would have someone else read his speech for him.

But Jefferson benefit from the formation of political parties. John Adams, the incumbent president in 1800, was a member of the "Federalist Party," which was strong in the northeast (especially Massachusetts). It favored a strong national government, friendly dealings with England, and a liberal interpretation of the Constitution ("loose constructionism"). In opposition to this party, the Democratic-Republican Party formed to represent the opposite: a weak national government (keeping the power at a local level), friendly dealings with France, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution ("strict constructionism"). The Democratic-Republican Party was strongest in Virginia. Politics is a team sport, and the fortunes of political candidates rose or fell based on the strength of the political party at that time (the same is true today).

In 1800, when the Federalist Party leader John Adams was President, the Democratic-Republican Party ran Thomas Jefferson (who had founded the party) against him in the presidential election.

The presidential election in 1800 became known as the "Revolution of 1800," because it was the first peaceful change in power due to election in modern history. The Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, were victorious over the incumbent John Adams. The victory by Jefferson and Burr against Adams was a victory for limited government and a strict constructionist interpretation of the Constitution.

Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr, won the same number of votes and thus tied for President. It made sense that everyone who voted for Jefferson would also vote for his running mate, since both were with the same political party, the Democratic-Republicans. But the inability of the election system to resolve this "tie" reflected a mistake in the Constitution in how Presidents and Vice Presidents were chosen, which had to be fixed by the 12th Amendment. Prior to the 12 Amendment, Congress had to resolve the tie.

Burr was a bad guy. As the grandson of Jonathan Edwards, Burr had access and wealth, and a good deal of charm. But even the charitable George Washington, who got along with everyone, felt compelled to banish Burr during the Revolution. Now Congress needed to choose between Burr and Jefferson as to which would be President.

Hamilton had fought Jefferson for over a decade. But Hamilton knew that Burr was rotten to the core. So Hamilton persuaded Congress to make Jefferson President. Some suspect that Jefferson privately cut a deal with the Federalist Hamilton to act like more like a Federalist as President than Jefferson would have otherwise.

Jefferson Administration

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former anti-Federalist James Monroe to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary. But by this time, Napoleon had suffered a costly failure in connection with a slave revolt in Haiti, and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World further. So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for all of France's territory, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River what what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast). Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for all of the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), which was equal in size to the entire United States at the time. The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

But the Constitution does not give the President the power to buy new territory. As a strict constructionist, Jefferson needed to violate his own principles about the Constitution in order to accept this unexpected, but extremely attractive, offer.

Debate: Was this "Louisiana Purchase" an improper exercise of power?

The Senate approved this "Louisiana Purchase" by a vote of 24-7, ratifying it by more than the 2/3rds required by the Constitution to approve treaties. Then, in 1804, Jefferson arranged for Meriweather Lewis, who was his secretary, to explore the territory west of Mississippi acquired in this Louisiana Purchase. Lewis chose William Clark, a soldier, as his assistant and their joint effort became known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806). In 1812, Louisiana because the first state admitted to the United States from this new territory. Much later, in 1828, the Supreme Court held that the power of the federal government to govern new territories implicitly included the power to acquire new territories also.

Back to 1804, when Burr ran for Governor of New York, which was one of the biggest and most powerful states. By then, Hamilton published a newspaper in New York named the New York Post, which still exists. Hamilton ran stories to defeat Burr. After Burr lost, he challenged Hamilton to a duel. In those days, one man could challenge anyone to a duel to fight to the death, and the other man had to defend his honor by accepting the challenge and fighting. Many of our future Presidents were in duels for this reason, including Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. It was considered dishonorable to decline a challenge to a duel, but 50 years later (perhaps after duels had lost their grip on society) Stonewall Jackson did refuse to duel a student who had a conflict with him at the Virginia Military Institute.

In 1804, Hamilton had no real choice but to accept Burr's challenge to a duel, and they met at dawn in Weehawkin, New Jersey. As was customary in duels, they w walked twenty or so paces away from each other and then turned to shoot at each other. But only one man fired to kill his opponent. Hamilton purposely did not try to kill Burr, feeling that it would be wrong to do so. But Burr shot and killed Hamilton. Burr then fled, having murdered one of the greatest Founding Fathers of all.

Meanwhile, Jefferson had his hands full with foreign conflicts. Pirates were harassing and looting American shipping off the coasts of the Northern African countries of Morocco, Algiers and Tunis. When Tripoli demanded more payoffs to stop the pirating, Congress declared war against it in 1805, known as the War with Tripoli. The war was unsuccessful for the United States, ending with a payment of a huge ransom to free the release of 270 sailors captured by the enemy. It was not until 1815 that brute force ended the harassment by the pirates of American shipping.

In 1807, bigger troubled occurred between the United States and England. The British Orders in Council forbade any trade by the United States with France unless the trade first touched English ports. This burden on American shipping led five years later to the War of 1812, despite the fact that England eventually rescinded the Orders slightly before Congress actually declared war. (Keep in mind that communications then was not fast like today.)

There was insult in addition to injury. In 1807, the "Chesapeake Affair" was a humiliating seizure by the British ship H.M.S. Leopard of an American ship the Chesapeake, in international waters where American shipping should have free travel. The British forcibly boarded the ship looking for other British sailors on it.

Jefferson tried to deal with the British Orders in Council by supporting and signing the Embargo Act in 1807. That law forbade all exports by the United States, which was a misguided attempt to hurt England. Jefferson also supported and signed the Nonintercourse Act, which forbade trade with Britain and France while authorizing President Jefferson to end the boycott once the European countries stopped violating the rights of Americans. These bans on exports were a huge failure, and hurt the American economy more than it hurt the European countries. By the end of Jefferson's two terms in office (a total of 8 years), he was no longer popular and he followed Washington's example of voluntarily leaving office. He resigned in 1809.

Only one additional state joined the United States during Jefferson's presidency: Ohio, in 1803. Jefferson himself died on July 4, 1826, a few hours before his political rival John Adams died. They had become friends years after they fought politically. Jefferson was deeply in financial ruin when he died, despite having been born to an extremely wealthy family.

The Marshall Court

In another branch of government, the Supreme Court was expanding its power under Chief Justice John Marshall, a Federalist appointee (by Adams) who served for 35 years. Virtually every important decision rendered by his Court, starting with Marbury v. Madison. There was no "check and balance" on Marshall's expansion in judicial power for decades, until President Andrew Jackson stood up to him and ignored Marshall’s decision on an Indian issue.

The expansion in federal power by the "Marshall Court" from 1801 to 1835 included the following decisions (the individuals or governmental units in each lawsuit are given on either side of the "v.", which stands for "versus"; for example, a lawsuit brought by John Smith against Tom Jones would be named "Smith v. Jones):

• Marbury v. Madison (1803): established a new power of judicial review to declare an Act of Congress unconstitutional.
• Fletcher v. Peck (1810): established a new power to invalidate a state law as unconstitutional (it held that a Georgia law violated the Contract Clause in the U.S. Constitution)
• Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): established that the Constitution prevents a state from altering the charter of a private corporation (Dartmouth)
• McCullough v. Maryland (1819): established that states may not tax a federal bank, and that a federal bank is authorized by the "necessary and proper" clause in the Constitution
• Cohens v. Virginia (1821): established the supremacy of the federal government by allowing D.C. lottery tickets to be sold in all states except those prohibiting it
• Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831): upholding Georgia law to wipe out the Cherokees, holding that they are not a nation and cannot sue in federal court

When Marshall finally died in office after serving a record 35 years as Chief Justice, he was replaced by Roger Taney. The Taney Court did not expand federal power as much, but it did expand government power at the state level. For example, it held that:

• Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837): allowing Massachusetts to fund a free bridge for the public good, despite hurting a private toll bridge established under a prior state charter. This destroyed private toll bridges and led to public financing of bridges and roads.

The War of 1812

James Madison was elected in 1808 to succeed Jefferson. But Madison was a bit of an egghead, one of the few presidents who did not serve in war as others his age had. Madison was in over his head as a president. Madison was a thinker, not a commander-in-chief. England was still the most powerful country in the world, and not someone to pick a fight with, regardless of what a professor type might think.

England was still in Canada and some "War Hawks" in Congress (particularly Henry Clay) accused it of inciting Indian attacks against us. England was also harassing American sailors and impressing them. Adding insult to injury, England invading D.C. itself and burning down the Capitol and the White House. President Madison was befuddled and almost helpless. It took his wife Dolly to show some initiative and at least save the portrait of George Washington as they fled the White House from the invasion.

In 1814, in the harbor at Baltimore, a battle was fought at Fort McHenry, during which the British shelled the American fortress. An amateur poet named Francis Scott Key was detained during the battle and put his idle time to good use. He penned the Star-Spangled Banner in honor of how the American flag continued to fly throughout the bombardment. In 1931, over 100 years later, it became the official National Anthem.

But England did not want to continue fighting with the United States. So on Christmas Eve, England agreed to end the war with the Treaty of Ghent, and the U.S. did not have to give back any land. It arranged for a long, open Canadian-U.S. border that remains to this day. Sometimes the [[War of 1812 is called the Second Revolutionary War because it finished off disputes lingering from the first war.

But news of the treaty traveled slowly in those days, and on Jan. 8, 1815, the British assaulted General Andrew Jackson's troops down in New Orleans. Jackson hated the British ever since he was a teenager. Then Jackson was ordered by a British soldier to shine the soldier's shoes in a humiliation to Jackson. Jackson refused and the soldier took out his sword and smacked Jackson across his face, leaving a scar.

Jackson had settled in Tennessee where there were many woodsmen and hunters. The Americans in Tennessee and Kentucky had rifles and were very good with them. They were expert marksmen. People in Tennessee also volunteer for military service in huge percentages, giving it the nickname the "Volunteer State" that it still uses to this day. Jackson called up these marksmen to help him in New Orleans against the British, and the residents of Tennessee and Kentucky answered his call. They rallied to Jackson's army.

Jackson led his army of marksmen down to New Orleans to settle his nation's score against the British, and perhaps settle Jackson's personal grudge against them also. Great Britain was the mightiest nation in the world and her soldiers were confident they could charge and destroy the ragtag American army. The British soldiers conducted an all-out charge against the Americans, but the British were no match for the frontier American marksmen from Tennessee and Kentucky. Those marksmen used their own rifles to completely mow down and destroy the charging British in this Battle of New Orleans. Jackson became an overnight hero to the entire country for destroying the British there. This was the finest and most one-sided victory the young nation had ever had.

Jackson was not the only war hero of the time. William Henry Harrison had defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe Creek several years earlier, in November 1811. Then Harrison destroyed Indian confederacy in Ohio. But Jackson was a bigger hero for defeating the British. Years later, first Jackson would become president based in his popularity as a hero, and then later Harrison would also be elected president.

Near the end of the war of 1812 there was an extraordinary meeting called the Hartford Convention, at which Federalists convened in Hartford, Connecticut. They drew up plans to oppose the war and perhaps even secede from the United States, out of friendship to England. We won the war and the Federalists looked like traitors. This ended the Federalist Party.

The Conservative President: James Monroe

The most conservative president of the 19th century (1800s) was James Madison, who was elected in 1816 (after James Madison finished his two terms). Monroe was so opposed to federal power that he had even opposed the ratification of the Constitution as an "Anti-Federalist. But that was decades earlier, and he became in many respects one of the best presidents in history.

His accomplishments were numerous and continue to shape our nation to this day, although he does not always receive the credit he observes. Often students are asked about key achievements that happened under Monroe's leadership, but without mentioning his name.

In 1819, the Adams-Onis Treaty completed the annexation of Florida to the United States, and also added property north of the southern border of current Oregon (which we now call the "Northwest").

In 1820, the immensely successful "Missouri Compromise" resolved for a while bitter disputes about whether slavery would be permitted in new territories, and whether to admit new states. The "Compromise" was between the North and the South, neither of whom wanted to give up power by adding a state friendly to the other side. The Senate was evenly balanced at this time, and adding just one new state on one side would tip the balance in its favor. There were 11 free states and 11 slave states (Delaware and Kentucky were slave states).

So the Missouri Compromise added Maine as a free state (which would side with the North), and Missouri as a slave state (which would side with the South until the Civil War). The other new states to be added from the Louisiana Purchase (once they had enough population) would be free: slavery was banned by this Compromise above the latitude of 36 degrees, 30 minutes.

The most lasting contribution of James Monroe was his "Monroe Doctrine" in 1823, which stated that Europe should stop colonizing America because its political and economic systems are different. In fact, Monroe stated that Europe should not interfere in the Western Hemisphere at all. To this day presidents continue to cite the Monroe Doctrine whenever a European country tries to do something over here.

America was immensely prosperous under Monroe's conservative leadership. The "Era of Good Feelings" overtook our country. Roads and canals were built. The economy blossomed. Monroe vetoed the Cumberland Road Bill (calling for more government-built roads) and the House rejected most spending bills on internal projects.

The "Corrupt Bargain"

After Monroe served two terms and retired just like Washington, a bitter race for president developed. Jackson started his own Democratic Party and ran against John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the son of John Adams. Other candidates, such as Henry Clay of Kentucky, also ran. Jackson won more votes than Adams but not enough to become president, so the election went into the House of Representatives. There Clay struck a bargain with Adams, whereby Clay persuaded Congressmen to vote for Adams and Adams made Clay his Secretary of State. Jackson (“Old Hickory”) supporters criticized this as the “corrupt bargain” and Jackson crushed Adams four years later.

The national government kept passing tariffs to increase its funding, such as the Tariff of 1824. Henry Clay adopted a term, the “American System,” to justify a protective tariff plus internal improvements nationwide as a way of expanding our domestic economy and decreasing our dependence on foreign sources.

Canals were being built and the steamboat (invented in 1807, big impact by the 1820s) developed so that goods could be transported quickly and cheaply over water. The most important canal was the Erie Canal, finished in 1825, to connect the Hudson River and New York City with the Great Lakes. It was spectacular economic success and enabled our nation’s economy to grow immensely. Because of it New York City would become our financial center and biggest city. The canal cost $7 million but was soon generating profits of $3 million per year.

Another tariff was passed in 1828, partly supported by a political attempt to support Jackson. The free traders in the South were outraged and called this the Tariff of Abominations. The South Carolina legislature adopted 8 resolutions declaring the tariff to be unconstitutional, oppressive and unjust. Georgia and Mississippi followed suit. John Calhoun, as Jackson’s running mate, anonymously wrote the South Carolina Exposition and Protest.

Jacksonian Democracy

Jackson’s win of the presidency in 1828 was a defining moment in our history. His inauguration was the triumph of the “common man,” who proceeded to trash the White House in a huge party opened to the public. Jackson vetoed renewal of the national bank. He continued to treat the Indians very harshly. Jackson also created the “spoils system,” whereby “to the victor goes the spoils” (giving jobs to supporters). Jackson vetoed road projects because he was a strict constitutionalist: if the power is not expressly in the Constitution, then it did not exist, under this view.

But conflict over preservation of the Union despite the North-South division continued. At an April 13, 1830 party, Jackson’s toast: “Our Union: It must be preserved.” Calhoun’s toast: “The Union, next to our liberty, most dear.”

Dispute boiled over in late 1832. South Carolina legislature passed the Ordinance of Nullification prohibiting the collection of federal duties and declaring that the use of force by the federal government would be justification for S.C. to secede from the Union. Jackson issued a proclamation that “disunion by armed force is treason.” S.C. remained defiant. Jackson replaced Calhoun with Martin Van Buren as his Vice President.

Jackson in early 1833 asked for the Force Bill to use federal troops to enforce the revenue laws, but also lowered the tariff. S.C. suspended its ordinance of nullification and the conflict was diffused.

Debate: Can a State nullify an act of Congress? Can a State secede (withdraw) from the United States?

The Whig Party

Jackson was disliked and thought to be a tyrant by bankers and pro-British (basically, the former Federalists) that a new political party arose just to defeat Jacksonian Democrats: the Whig Party. In the first post-Jackson presidential election, his popularity remained too strong to beat his political party. President Van Buren, the only American president not of British (including Irish) descent, was elected in 1836 by riding Jackson’s “coattails” (i.e., his popularity). But Van Buren was hurt by the financial Panic of 1837. Some felt that the financial panic was due to a lack of a national bank to prevent many local bank failures. Also during Van Buren’s presidency: Gag rule barring petitions on slavery in Congress. Elijah Lovejoy was brutally murdered in 1837 across the river from Missouri for criticizing slavery.

Van Buren was defeated for reelection in 1840 by clever slogans by the Whig Party such as “Van, van the used up man” and “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!” (Harrison was a military hero for defeating the Indians at Tippecanoe.)

Annexation of Texas – 1845. Slavery issue resurfaces with new territories and balance of free versus slave power in the Senate. War with Mexico in 1846-48, which many northerners opposed on moral grounds and also opposed based on a suspicion that the South sought more slave territories. Wilmot Proviso: no territory acquired from Mexico may have slavery. Never passed the Senate but inspired the abolitionists.

Compromise of 1850 confronted these problems: California had gold (gold rush of 1849) and wanted to join the Union as a free state, but that would upset the slave-free state balance. Texas wanted all the territory between it and Santa Fe (now in New Mexico). Washington, D.C. allowed slavery and had the biggest slave market in North America.

The aging senators Clay (Kentucky), Webster (Massachusetts) and Calhoun (S.C.) worked together to keep the Union intact. Clay, the ultimate compromiser, led the way. Here was the deal:

Texas got $10 million in exchange for relinquishing its claim to the land, money that Texas used to pay off its debt to Mexico. New territories of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and Utah would be organized based on the views of their inhabitants whether to allow slavery. The slave trade would be abolished in D.C. California would be admitted as a free state.

Slavery 1800-1840

<mention abolition of the importation of slaves in 1808>.

Tallmadge Amendment 1820: rejected by Senate; it would have outlawed further slave importation into Missouri and freed older ones

<reference Missouri Compromise as discussed above>

The Compromise of 1850 allowed slavery to continue in D.C. The dreadful Fugitive Slave Act was passed to appease the Southern slave-owners in D.C. and throughout the South.

The Fugitive Slave Act required Americans to assist in the recovery of fugitive slaves and denied them the right to a jury trial. This caused 20,000 blacks to flee to Canada. Even free blacks were reportedly captured and sent to be slaves in the South. The abolitionists redoubled their efforts, through use of the Underground Railroad, the resolution of the Compromise of 1850 proved to be only temporary.