Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin
by Jean Baptiste Greuze (1777)

Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706, Boston – April 17, 1790 Philadelphia), was an American polymath, inventor, statesman, and one of the most prominent scientists in the world, famed for his discoveries in electricity.

Franklin's greatest invention was the United States of America. He was known as "the First American" because his efforts were critical to the formation of a new nation, the success of the American Revolution and the unification of the 13 colonies into the United States of America. Serving as the American minister to France, he secured decisive military and financial support for the Revolution, while asserting the values of democracy and republicanism. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in writing the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and helped legitimize the U.S. Constitution in 1787. His effective diplomacy, creative nationalism, promotion of civic virtue and devotion to republicanism earned him high rank as a Founding Father.

Early Life

Franklin was born on January 17, 1706 in Boston, Massachusetts into a Puritan family. His father was Josiah Franklin, a soap and candle maker, twice married with 17 children. Benjamin briefly worked as an apprentice under his father before being apprenticed at age 12 to his brother James Franklin, one of the first American printers. James created the first independent newspaper in the colonies, a weekly publication called the New England Courant. The Courant became Franklin's first public forum for his essays, written under the pseudonym "Silence Dogood." Franklin, pretending to be a widow, wrote 14 essays between April and October 1722. The Courant drew the anger of the local authorities, who prohibited James from publishing it, citing that it mocked religion. In order to continue printing, James released his brother from his apprenticeship and named him the publisher; Benjamin used this release to his advantage, escaping the control of his overbearing brother by running away to Philadelphia at the age of 17.

Printer and Civic Leader

Upon his arrival in Philadelphia, Franklin found work at a print shop. He became acquainted with the governor of the colony, William Keith, who persuaded Franklin that he needed to go into business for himself and offered him letters of credit in London to purchase equipment. When he arrived in London in December 1724, he learned that Keith's letters of credit were useless. The next two years were spent working in the local print shops. In July of 1726, he returned to Philadelphia with the aide of Thomas Denham, a Quaker merchant he befriended on his trip to London. Denham paid for Franklin's trip in exchange for work in his general store. Denham passed away shortly after returning to Philadelphia, Franklin resumed his career as a print shop apprentice. In 1728, Franklin partnered with his fellow apprentice, Hugh Meredith, and opened their own print shop. Franklin soon bought out Meredith and began publishing The Pennsylvania Gazette, which he bought from his former employer, Samuel Keimer.

In September 1730, Franklin entered a common law marriage with Deborah Read. No legal ceremony was possible because Deborah was still legally married; her husband had deserted to avoid paying a debt. Around this time, Franklin fathered an illegitimate son by an unknown woman; William Franklin was raised in his new household. In 1732, Deborah gave birth to their first son, Francis, who died of smallpox at the age of 4, leading Franklin to become an advocate of vaccinations. Sarah Franklin, who went by Sally, was born 11 years later in 1743.

In late 1732, began writing and publishing Poor Richard's Almanack, under the guise of Poor Richard Saunders and his wife, Bridget. It's purpose was to provide practical knowledge to the common man, while interjecting a rich dose of humor. Franklin had a knack for rewording old proverbs in a wittier manner and it was his wit that was instrumental in separating Poor Richard's from other almanacs being printed in Philadelphia. The Almanack also served as an outlet for Franklin's desire toward self improvement and helping others. It became an annual publication from 1732 to 1758.

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Statue of Benjamin Franklin on the University of Pennsylvania campus.

In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Poor Richard's Almanac, he printed Father Abraham's Sermon. Franklin's autobiography, published after his death, is regarded as one of the classics of the genre and is still quoted extensively by many essayists.

Civic leader

Franklin became one of Philadelphia's leading citizens, founding a sanitation department, a fire brigade, the American Philosophical Society, and the first circulating library in British North America.

Benjamin Franklin guided the establishment of the University of Pennsylvania, which was chartered as nonsectarian. It was a new type of institution, unlike rival colleges it did not primarily train clergy. Instead it educated students for careers in the professions and business and for public service. It established America's first modern liberal arts curriculum." During Franklin's time in England, he was a member of the Lunar Society based in Birmingham, creators of the Industrial Revolution, and also the Hellfire Club of Sir Francis Dashwood.

Scientist

By age 42, Franklin was wealthy enough to retire from newspapering, and devoted most of his time to his scientific pursuits. Franklin invented bi-focal lenses, a heat efficient stove, and the swivel chair. His famous experiment with a kite won him membership in the prestigious Royal Society, but it also had a practical effect. It also led to Franklin’s invention of the lighting rod, and increased his fortune when he was contracted to outfit all the ships in the Royal Navy with lighting rods. By 1750, Franklin was easily the most famous of the King’s North American subjects.

Franklin is responsible for the nomenclature of "positive" and "negative" charge. He believed he could tell the direction in which electricity traveled by observing sparks. He was wrong; the electrons, which are the particles carrying ordinary electricity, move in the opposite of the direction he thought they did. As a result, when electrons were discovered, according to Franklin's designation they had to be considered as having a negative charge.

Colonial leader

While Franklin thought of himself as a loyal subject, he did question some of the Crown’s actions. In 1754, he proposed the Albany Plan of Union, which would have united the colonies (and the Iroquois League as well) under a Royal governor, and given the colonies the power to tax themselves. Many of the colonies did not send representatives to Albany, and nothing came of the plan.

Franklin put his prestige on the line to assist the expedition of British general Edward Braddock to capture Fort Duquesne (present day Pittsburgh) from the French. Pennsylvania’s legislature refused to help provide supplies for the expedition, so Franklin made an appeal for colonists to provide provisions, horses, and wagons for Braddock’s army. In his autobiography, Franklin recalled questioning Braddock about the expedition’s chances of success. Braddock assured him he would easily capture the fort. After the disaster that Braddock met on the Monongahela, Franklin was less sanguine about accepting professional military opinion.

Colonial agent in London

In 1757, Franklin went to London to represent Pennsylvania in its quarrel with William Penn’s heirs (Pennsylvania was the last of the propriety colonies). He remained abroad for eighteen years, not returning to American until 1775.

During Franklin’s tenure in England, he also represented several other colonies and became a regular observer, and unofficial representative of the colonies. In 1765, he assured British politicians that Americans would accept the Stamp Act, but news of colonial protest caused him to back away from that position. Afterwards, Franklin regularly opposed English attempts to tax the colonies.

Politician

In 1751, after serving as a clerk 15 years, Franklin was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. He used his new position to advance civic projects such as pushing legislation to maintain and light the streets. One of the primary issues faced by the Assembly was keeping their frontier border safe from Indian attacks orchestrated by the French. There was frequent conflict between the Assembly and the Proprietary leadership of the Penn family. The Penns controlled a vast majority of the lands in Pennsylvania, however, forbid them to be taxed which hampered the Assembly's ability to build an adequate militia. In 1753, Franklin was promoted to the position of Deputy Postmaster for the Colonies, which he would share with William Hunter, by the British government. The industrious Franklin, who frequently took inspection tours throughout the colonies, revamped the postal system to be more efficient, speeding up delivery times and creating the home delivery system. From visiting the colonies first hand, coupled with the increasing need for frontier defense, led Franklin to believe that some form of unification of the colonies was necessary. In June 1754, a conference was called by the London Board of Trade to meet in Albany, New York to discuss a more unified defense. Franklin presented his Albany Plan of Union, which called for a "General Government" that dealt solely with defense and left all other legislation to the colonies. The Plan was approved by the conference but was unanimously rejected by the colonial assemblies.

Mission to London

In January of 1757, demonstrating its frustration with the Proprietors, the Assembly elected to send Franklin to London. Franklin attempted to argue that the colonists should be afforded the same rights as other British citizens, with the ability to govern and tax through an elected legislature. His attempts to persuade this to both Thomas Penn and Parliament failed. Although his mission was over by 1758, Franklin lingered in London for another four years. He enjoyed his time meeting with the local intellectuals and political radicals, and with a touch of regret returned to Philadelphia in 1762. His return to Philadelphia was to be short-lived. In the 1764 elections, Franklin failed to be reelected after a vicious pamphlet war labeled him as anti-German and Scottish, which made up a majority of Pennsylvania's frontier population. He found this to be a blessing in disguise when the Assembly elected to send him back to London to serve as their agent once again.

Stamp Act

Shortly after his arrival, the Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, which ended up being a public relations nightmare for Franklin. Franklin had recommended a friend of his as collection officer for Pennsylvania, while Thomas Penn wisely stayed out of it. The Act was immensely unpopular in the colonies and Franklin's recommendation did little to garner him any respect. He sent a letter to Philadelphia that was made public urging the colonies to simply make the best of it, leading to the misconception that Franklin had something to do with authoring the Act. His reputation damaged, Franklin enlisted prominent London Quakers to write on his behalf, and he began his own writing campaign in the London press denouncing the Stamp Act. On February 13, 1766 sat before Parliament and argued his case against the Act, which led to its repeal. This fully restored his reputation in America and he was asked by the colonies of Georgia, Massachusetts, and New Jersey to serve as their agent as well. In June 1767, Parliament passed another tax on colonial goods called the Townshend Act. Franklin, still loyal to the crown, took a moderate approach - simultaneously denouncing the growing radicalism in the colonies while ridiculing the British government for imposing taxes without adequate representation. Most of Franklin's moderation in these issues can be attributed to the fact that he desired a government appointment to oversee colonial affairs. When he was not chosen, he began an essay writing campaign that aggressively attacked the Townshend Act.

Hutchinson letters

In 1773, Franklin somehow obtained the originals of secret letters written by Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson to the British government. The letters urged Parliament to send troops to put down the growing rebellion in Boston. Franklin sent the letters to friends in the colony, who in turn publicly published them. His intent was to pin the blame on people like Hutchinson for encouraging the unpopular policies, which he hoped would promote a spirit of reconciliation with Britain. He misjudged the situation, however, which led to the Massachusetts Assembly demanding that Parliament remove Hutchinson from his governorship. Franklin later admitted he had leaked the letters. He was interrogated in highly humiliating fashion before Parliament on January 29, 1775. He was stripped of his position of postmaster and returned to Philadelphia on May 5, 1775.

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The Benjamin Franklin National Memorial inside the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Champion of Independence

Returning from England in 1775, Franklin came out strongly in favor of independence. He was on the committee in charge of the Declaration of Independence, which he helped Thomas Jefferson draft.

Franklin had made his illegitimate son William Franklin, the Royal Governor of New Jersey, but he remained loyal to the Crown, and father and son never reconciled.

He understood the risks the Founding Fathers were taking and told them, "We must all hang together, or we shall hang separately."

Ambassador

He served as the American minister (ambassador) to France, where where he was instrumental in obtaining military and economic support for the struggle against England. In Paris, Franklin mingled with scientists, writers and intellectuals in many of the salons. He avoided court costumes and cultivated the image of a rustic American, sometimes wearing a coonskin cap. The French loved every bit of it and his popularity helped in securing recognition, money and armies and navies to fight Britain.

Continental Congress

Upon his return, Franklin was elected to the Second Continental Congress. On July 21, he presented plans for the Articles of Confederation, similar to his Albany Plan, which called for a strong central government and a congress with proportional representation. Most of his ideas were not included in the version Congress adopted in 1777. As popular sentiment for independence grew in early 1776, Franklin, along with Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston, was selected by Congress to draft the Declaration of Independence. The document was written primarily by Jefferson, with Franklin offering his editorial commentary. With America formally declaring it's sovereignty and the war going poorly, in December of 1776 Franklin was sent to France, along with Silas Deane and Arthur Lee, to secure aid for the rebellion.

Minister to France

Franklin arrived to great fanfare in France. Already popular for his lightning experiment, his flirtatious manner and wit made him a favorite among the courtiers. Franklin also proved himself to be a crafty diplomat. By the end of 1777, after the American victory at Saratoga, the French favored an alliance with the Americans which was dismissed by their ally Spain. Franklin played on the traditional hatred between the British and the French, using the press to get his messages across. On February 5, 1778 America officially signed a treaty of alliance with France with the stipulation that they must have France's approval to negotiate peace with England. French aid proved to be critical to the Americans success, most notably in October 1781 at Yorktown in which the support of French naval forces and ground troops caused the British to surrender. This gave America the leverage it needed to negotiate peace with England and Franklin, along with John Jay and John Adams, negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783).

Constitutional Convention

Franklin arrived back in Philadelphia in September 1785. The Articles of Confederation, which were ratified by all the colonies in 1781, proved to be inefficient for governing the new nation, particularly because they granted the national government no power to levy taxes. In 1787 the Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia to write a new Constitution. Franklin, at age 81 the oldest delegate, played an honorific role and his support helped legitimize the project.

Slavery

Franklin's final political activism dealt with the issue of slavery. Franklin, who himself had been a slaveowner, joined the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and became their president in 1787. The Society had hoped he would bring up the issue of slavery at the Constitutional Convention, which he declined to do, realizing that it would be too contentious of an issue. In November 1789, he published his Address to the Public which appealed for the emancipation of slaves and the further education of free blacks. Franklin's antislavery role was primarily honorific.

Death

Franklin died on April 17, 1790 at the age of 84 and was buried at Christ Church in Philadelphia. Civic-minded to the end, Franklin's will established a 200 year trust fund for Boston and Philadelphia which was to be used to train and educate young craftsmen. Both cities have held true to Franklin's wishes, providing aid to students and establishing the Franklin Institute of Boston.

Republican

Franklin believed strongly in the importance of political freedom to the American experiment. As such, he remarked, "those who would give up a little liberty, to gain a little security, deserve neither, and will lose both,".

Religious Beliefs

Early in life, Franklin developed a love of reading. As he recalled in his autobiography, "From a child I was fond of reading, and all the little money that came into my hands was ever laid out in books. Pleased with the Pilgrim's Progress, my first collection was of John Bunyan's works in separate little volumes. My old favorite author, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ... has been translated into most of the languages of Europe, and suppose it has been more generally read than any other book, except perhaps the Bible."

In Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania, (1749) he outlines an essentially secular curriculum. Religion is to be taught under the rubric of History; Franklin, however, makes a point of saying that

"History will also afford frequent Opportunities of showing the Necessity of a Publick Religion, from its Usefulness to the Publick; the advantage of a Religious Character among private Persons; the Mischiefs of Superstition, &c. and the Excellency of the CHRISTIAN RELIGION above all others, antient and modern."

Franklin rejected the deism of his youth. In a draft autobiography written mostly in 1771, nearly 20 years prior to his death, Franklin described how he came to deism as a teenager. He recalled that his "parents had early given me religious impressions, and brought me through my childhood piously in the Dissenting way. But I was scarce fifteen, when, after doubting by turns of several points, as I found them disputed in the different books I read, I began to doubt of Revelation itself. Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's Lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist."

Franklin then abandoned his youthful deism in favor of a strong belief in an interventionist God, as reflected by his prayer request during a troubled period of the Constitutional Convention. In a letter dated March 9, 1790, the last letter Franklin ever wrote, he expressed his strong faith in God and his acceptance of the possibility of the divinity of Christ:

"Here is my Creed: I believe in one God, Creator of the Universe. That he governs it by Providence. That he ought to be worshipped. That the most acceptable Service we render to him is doing good to his other Children. That the soul of Man is immortal, and will be treated with Justice in another Life respecting its conduct in in this. These I take to be the fundamental Principles of all sound Religion, and I regard them as you do in whatever sect I meet with them.

"As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the system of Morals and His Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupting Changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some doubt as to his Divinity; tho' it is a question I need not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm in its being believed, if that belief has the good Consequence, as probably it has, of making his Doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive, that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the Unbelievers in his Government of the world with any peculiar Marks of his Displeasure."

As Franklin grew older, he recognized that Christianity had positive effects on colonial society. Franklin befriended George Whitefield, the best known of the Great Awakening evangelicals. The two also had a business relationship, with Franklin printing nearly all of Whitefield’s North American sermons. After one of Whitefield's sermons, Franklin noted the "wonderful...change soon made in the manners of our inhabitants. From being thoughtless or indifferent about religion, it seem'd as if all the world were growing religious, so that one could not walk thro' the town in an evening without hearing psalms sung in different families of every street."

Fame

By 1776 Franklin was the most famous American in the world. He was one of the most prominent of the Founding Fathers, early political figures and statesmen of the United States.

Franklin is one of the few non-presidents whose likeness appears on U.S. currency. Franklin graces the $100 bill while Alexander Hamilton appears on the $10 bill.

In fiction and popular culture

Ben and Me

Robert Lawson's 1939 book, Ben and Me: An Astonishing Life of Benjamin Franklin by His Good Mouse Amos, is a children's classic continuously in print since publication. It is written at level suitable for ages 10 and up, but is also enjoyed by adults. As the title indicates, the narrator is a mouse. Amos is not very respectful toward Franklin. He see Franklin as absent-minded, lacking in common sense, and barely able to take care of himself. According to Amos, it is Amos himself who inspired, and should be credited with most of Franklin's great inventions. Amos has nothing but scorn for Franklin's "Poor Richard" maxims:

"'Early to bed, early to rise, makes a healthy, wealthy and wise!' Bah! When have you been ever been to bed early, or risen early, except when you've had insomnia? Yet you're healthy and wealthy."

"Perhaps if I lived by the maxim I should also be—wise," he suggested, meekly.

"That I doubt," I said. "it would require more than a maxim. A miracle, like."

In 1953, Walt Disney made a 20-minute animated short film from the book with Sterling Holloway as Amos, but it failed to capture the spirit of the story and did not even attempt to be faithful to the style of Lawson's illustrations.

In 2006, Ben and Me was selected for the annual "One Book, One Philadelphia" project, in honor of Franklin's 300th birthday.

Quotes and sayings

"If people let the government decide what foods they eat and what medicines they take, their bodies will soon be in as sorry a state as the souls who live under tyranny."

Bibliography

• Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin," Dictionary of American Biography (1931) - vol 3, with hot links online
• Brands, Henry. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000)- excellent long scholarly biography excerpt and text search
• Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life (2004) - good recent biography excerpt and text search
• Ketcham, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin (1966) 228 pponline edition
• Morgan, Edmund S. Benjamni Franklin (2003) the best short introduction excerpt and text search
• Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin (1938), standard older biography excerpt and text search
• Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia (1986) - excellent scholarly study excerpt and text search

Bibliography

Biographies

• Becker, Carl Lotus. "Benjamin Franklin," Dictionary of American Biography (1931) - vol 3, with hot links online
• Brands, Henry. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000)- excellent long scholarly biography excerpt and text search
• Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life (2004) - good recent biography excerpt and text search
• Ketcham, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin (1966) 228 pponline edition
• Morgan, Edmund S. Benjamni Franklin (2003) the best short introduction excerpt and text search
• Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin (1938), standard older biography excerpt and text search
• Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia (1986) - excellent scholarly study excerpt and text search

Specialized Scholarly Studies

• Anderson, Douglas. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997) - fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin
• Buxbaum, M.H. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987)
• Cohen, I. Bernard. Benjamin Franklin's Science (1990) - Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin's science
• Conner, Paul W. Poor Richard's Politicks (1965) - analyzes Franklin's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment
• Dull, Jonathan. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1985)
• Ford, Paul Leicester. The Many-Sided Franklin (1899) online edition - collection of scholarly essays
• Lemay, J. A. Leo, ed. Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective (1993) - scholarly essays
• McCoy, Drew R. "Benjamin Franklin's Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America." William and Mary Quarterly 1978 35(4): 607-628.
• Skemp, Sheila L. Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (1994)- Ben's son was a leading Loyalist

Primary Sources

• Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, ed. L.W. Labaree et al. (1964) online edition - there are many editions
• Franklin, Benjamin. Franklin: Writings, ed. J.A. Leo Lemay, Library of America (1987) excerpt and text search; complete text online free
• Labaree, Leonard W., et al., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin 35 vols. to date (1959-2002) - definitive edition, through 1781. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in print form at large research libraries. the complete text, searchable, is online free from Yale It is most useful for detailed research on very specific topics.
• Yale edition of complete works of Benjamin Franklin
• The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin Collected by Robert A. Morse, 2004.
• Franklin's Last Will & Testament Transcription.