Difference between revisions of "Atheism and violence"

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Christopher Hitchens became an activist against [[Islam]] when Ayatullah Kohmeini declared a [[fatwa]] against his personal friend [[Salman Rushdie]]. The event has led him to become very vocal in his support of the war in Iraq and heavily critical of Muslim society and ethics.
 
Christopher Hitchens became an activist against [[Islam]] when Ayatullah Kohmeini declared a [[fatwa]] against his personal friend [[Salman Rushdie]]. The event has led him to become very vocal in his support of the war in Iraq and heavily critical of Muslim society and ethics.
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== Irreligion and domestic violence ==
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[[Image:Cycle.gif|thumbnail|200px|right|Research suggests that irreligiousity is a causal factor for domestic violence.<ref name=VAW>Ellison, Christopher L. et al. (November 2007).  [http://vaw.sagepub.com/content/13/11/1094.full.pdf+html "Race/Ethnicity, Religious Involvement, and Domestic Violence"].  ''Violence Against Women'', vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 1094-1112, doi:10.1177/1077801207308259.  Retrieved from Sage Journals archive.</ref>]]
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''See also:'' [[Irreligion and domestic violence]] and [[Atheism and love]] and [[Atheism and loneliness]]
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The abstract for the 2007 article in the journal ''Violence Against Women'' entitled ''Race/Ethnicity, Religious Involvement, and Domestic Violence'' indicated:
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{{cquote|The authors explored the relationship between religious involvement and intimate partner violence by analyzing data from the first wave of the National Survey of Families and Households. They found that: (a) religious involvement is correlated with reduced levels of domestic violence; (b) levels of domestic violence vary by race/ethnicity; (c) the effects of religious involvement on domestic violence vary by race/ethnicity; and (d) religious involvement, specifically church attendance, protects against domestic violence, and this protective effect is stronger for African American men and women and for Hispanic men, groups that, for a variety of reasons, experience elevated risk for this type of violence.<ref name=VAW/>}} 
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A higher rate of domestic violence exists among cohabiting couples as compared with married couples<ref>Kenney, C. T. and McLanahan, S. S. (February 2006).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16579211 [abstract of&#93; "Why are cohabiting relationships more violent than marriages?"] ''Demography'', vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 127-40.  Abstract retrieved from U. S. National Institute of Health/National Library of Medicine/National Center for Biotechnology Information/PubMed.</ref> Atheists have lower marriage rates than [[theism|theists]] (see: [[Atheism and marriage]] and [[Atheist marriages]]).
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A September 9, 2012 article at ''Atlantic Wire'' wrote about the noted atheist [[John Lennon]]:
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{{cquote|But people have mostly forgotten that Lennon was also physically abusive towards women. "I used to be cruel to my woman," he said, citing the lyrics to "Getting Better" in a Playboy interview near the end of his life. "Physically—any woman. I was a hitter. I couldn't express myself and I hit. I fought men and I hit women." In his biography The Lives of John Lennon, Albert Goldman also maintains that Lennon was guilty of spousal abuse.<ref>Wagner, David (September 19, 2012).  [http://www.theatlanticwire.com/entertainment/2012/09/john-lennon-and-chris-brown-have-something-common/57040/ "John Lennon and Chris Brown have something in common"].  The Wire website.</ref>}}
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For more information, please see: [[Irreligion and domestic violence]]
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=== Secular Europe and domestic violence ===
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''See also:'' [[Secular Europe and domestic violence]] and [[Atheistic Sweden and rape]]
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[[File:Flag of Sweden.png|thumbnail|200px|left|Sweden is one of the most atheistic countries in the world.<ref name=Top50>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.html "The largest atheist/agnostic populations:  Top 50 countries with highest proportion of atheists / agnostics (Zuckerman, 2005)"] (2005).  Adherents.com/Largest religious communities.</ref>  In Sweden, 81 percent of women said they had been harassed at some point after the age of 15 - compared to the EU average of 55 percent.<ref name=Sweden>Törnkvist, Ann (March 5, 2014, 8:34).  [http://www.thelocal.se/20140305/sweden-out-top-in-eu-domestic-violence-league "Sweden stands out in domestic violence study"].  The Local.</ref>]]
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In March 2014, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] news website ''The Local'' published an article entitled ''Sweden stands out in domestic violence study'' which declared:
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{{cquote|A new EU review of violence against women has revealed that one in three European women has been assaulted, and one in twenty has been raped, with the Scandinavian countries at the top of the league tables.
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In the Scandinavian countries, in contrast, around half of the women reported physical or sexual violence, which researchers at the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights said could have several explanations...
 +
 +
In Sweden, 81 percent of women said they had been harassed at some point after the age of 15 - compared to the EU average of 55 percent. After Sweden, which had the highest rate, Denmark, France, the Netherland and Finland all saw rates above 70 percent. The EU member state with the lowest rate - 24 percent - was Bulgaria.<ref name=Sweden/>}}
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[[Sweden]] is one of the most atheistic countries in the world and the website adherents.com reported that in 2005 46 - 85% of Swedes were agnostics/atheists/non-believers in God.<ref name=Top50/> Sweden also has the 3rd highest rate of belief in evolution as far as [[Western World]] nations.<ref>Owen, James (August 10, 2006). [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060810-evolution.html "Evolution less accepted in U.S. than other Western countries, study finds [photo and caption&#93;"].  National Geographic News.</ref>
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See also: [[Atheistic Sweden and rape]] and [[Sexual immorality and Sweden]]
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For more information, please see: [[Irreligion and domestic violence]]
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=== Irreligion, alcoholism and domestic abuse ===
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''See also:'' [[Atheist Americans, gender and alcoholism]]
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According to the [[World Health Organization]], "Evidence suggests that alcohol use increases the occurrence and severity of domestic violence".<ref>[http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/ft_intimate.pdf "World Health Organization Intimate Partner Violence and Alcohol Fact Sheet"] (2005 or 2006).  www.Who.int/Violence and Injury Prevention/Violence/Fact Sheets.</ref>
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A 2010 ''Scientific American'' column article indicates concerning domestic violence that "Women suffer close to two thirds of the injuries... In addition, women and men differ in the severity of their actions; women are more likely to scratch or slap their partners, men more commonly punch or choke their partners."<ref>Arkowitz, Hal and Lilienfeld, Scott O. (May–June 2010).  [http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-men-the-more-belligerent-sex/ "Are men the more belligerent sex? Men are more dangerous, but women can be just as aggressive"]. ''Mind''.  Retrieved from ''Scientific American'' website.</ref>
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[[File:Vodka.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|[[Alcoholism]] was a serious social problem in the former atheistic [[Soviet Union]].<ref>Pomerlau, Joceline, et. al. (May–June 2008).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18245818 "Hazardous alcohol drinking in the former Soviet Union: A cross-sectional study of eight countries"]. ''Alcohol and Alcoholism'', vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 351-9.  Retrieved from PubMed.gov</ref> Between 1940 and 1980, this [[atheist state]] had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.<ref>Anderson, Sandra C. and Hibbs, Valerie K. (October 1992). [http://isw.sagepub.com/content/35/4/441.extract "Alcoholism in the Soviet Union" [first page&#93;].  ''International Social Work'', vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 441-53 [fee or registration required for full article].  First page retrieved from Sage journals/International Social Work.</ref>]]
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Atheists and atheistic societies often have significant problems with excess alcohol usage (For more information please see: [[Atheism and alcoholism]]).
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According to the [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC):
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{{cquote|Men are more likely than women to drink excessively. Excessive drinking is associated with significant increases in short-term risks to health and safety, and the risk increases as the amount of drinking increases. Men are also more likely than women to take other risks (e.g., drive fast or without a safety belt), when combined with excessive drinking, further increasing their risk of injury or death.
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Approximately 63% of adult men reported drinking alcohol in the last 30 days. Men (24%) were two times more likely to binge drink than women during the same time period.
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Men average about 12.5 binge drinking episodes per person per year, while women average about 2.7 binge drinking episodes per year.
 +
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Most people who binge drink are not alcoholics or alcohol dependent.
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It is estimated that about 17% of men and about 8% of women will meet criteria for alcohol dependence at some point in their lives.<ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/mens-health.htm "Excessive alcohol use and risks to men's health"] (November 19, 2014).  U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website/Alcohol and Public Health/Fact Sheets</ref>}}
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==

Revision as of 01:02, August 6, 2016

Atheists, particularly the secular left, have used violence and oppression to promote atheism. For example, according to the University of Cambridge, historically, the "most notable spread of atheism was achieved through the success of the 1917 Russian Revolution, which brought the Marxist-Leninists to power."[1]

Atheistic communism and mass murder/torture

Atheism and mass murder

See also: Atheism and Mass Murder

Atheism was an integral part of communist ideology (see: Atheism and communism).

It is estimated that in the past 100 years, governments under the banner of atheistic communism have caused the death of somewhere between 40,472,000 and 259,432,000 human lives.[2] Dr. R. J. Rummel, professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii, is the scholar who first coined the term democide (death by government). Dr. R. J. Rummel's mid estimate regarding the loss of life due to communism is that communism caused the death of approximately 110,286,000 people between 1917 and 1987.[3]

Theodore Beale

Theodore Beale notes concerning atheism and mass murder:

“ Apparently it was just an amazing coincidence that every Communist of historical note publicly declared his atheism … .there have been twenty-eight countries in world history that can be confirmed to have been ruled by regimes with avowed atheists at the helm … These twenty-eight historical regimes have been ruled by eighty-nine atheists, of whom more than half have engaged in democidal acts of the sort committed by Stalin and Mao …

The total body count for the ninety years between 1917 and 2007 is approximately 148 million dead at the bloody hands of fifty-two atheists, three times more than all the human beings killed by war, civil war, and individual crime in the entire twentieth century combined.

The historical record of collective atheism is thus 182,716 times worse on an annual basis than Christianity’s worst and most infamous misdeed, the Spanish Inquisition. It is not only Stalin and Mao who were so murderously inclined, they were merely the worst of the whole Hell-bound lot. For every Pol Pot whose infamous name is still spoken with horror today, there was a Mengistu, a Bierut, and a Choibalsan, godless men whose names are now forgotten everywhere but in the lands they once ruled with a red hand.

Is a 58 percent chance that an atheist leader will murder a noticeable percentage of the population over which he rules sufficient evidence that atheism does, in fact, provide a systematic influence to do bad things? If that is not deemed to be conclusive, how about the fact that the average atheist crime against humanity is 18.3 million percent worse than the very worst depredation committed by Christians, even though atheists have had less than one-twentieth the number of opportunities with which to commit them. If one considers the statistically significant size of the historical atheist set and contrasts it with the fact that not one in a thousand religious leaders have committed similarly large-scale atrocities, it is impossible to conclude otherwise, even if we do not yet understand exactly why this should be the case. Once might be an accident, even twice could be coincidence, but fifty-two incidents in ninety years reeks of causation![4]

”

Atheistic communism and torture

See also: Atheistic communism and torture

The website Victimsofcommunism.org declares concerning atheistic communism and the use of torture:

“ Significantly, communists did not merely try to block or halt religious faith but to reverse it. This was particularly true for Romania, even before the Nicolai Ceausescu era. This meant not just forbidding religious practice and jailing ministers and believers but employing torture to force them to renounce their faith. It was not enough to contain, silence, even punish believers in prison; it was decided they must be tortured in truly unimaginably degrading ways to attempt to undo religious faith.[5] ”

For more information, please see: Atheistic communism and torture

French Revolution and violence

The Reign of Terror of the French Revolution established a state which was anti-Roman Catholicism/Christian in nature [6] (anti-clerical deism and anti-religious atheism and played a significant role in the French Revolution[7]), with the official ideology being the Cult of Reason; during this time thousands of believers were suppressed and executed by the guillotine.[8]

Atheism, neoconservatism and aggressive advocacy of violence

Christopher Hitchens

The atheist Adam Lee wrote:

“ ...it's an unfortunate quirk of history that some prominent atheists have been aggressive advocates of neoconservative foreign policy, which calls for the subjugation of Muslim countries through bombing and invasion. Although religious terrorism is a real threat, too many atheists can't conceive of any way to respond to it except with more violence.

A case in point is the late Christopher Hitchens, who was a brilliant and fearless writer but will forever be tainted by George W. Bush's invasion of Iraq, which he enthusiastically supported on many occasions. Another example is Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a Somali refugee who deconverted from Islam and rose to become a member of the Dutch parliament. While Hirsi Ali's life story is undeniably inspiring, and she's endured great personal trauma and danger for her apostasy, she's adopted xenophobic ideas about the Western world being at war with Islam. Last but not least, there's Sam Harris, who's made many hair-raising comments about Islam such as a call for airport security screeners to profile anyone who "looks like" they "could conceivably be Muslim."

All these thinkers bought into the destructive fantasy that endless war and brutality, or the all-seeing eye of a surveillance state, are the ways to stop terrorism and other dangerous outgrowths of fundamentalism. There may be cases where military force is the only option, in self-defense or to prevent genocide, but this can only be a last resort.[9]

”

Christopher Hitchens became an activist against Islam when Ayatullah Kohmeini declared a fatwa against his personal friend Salman Rushdie. The event has led him to become very vocal in his support of the war in Iraq and heavily critical of Muslim society and ethics.

Irreligion and domestic violence

Research suggests that irreligiousity is a causal factor for domestic violence.[10]

See also: Irreligion and domestic violence and Atheism and love and Atheism and loneliness

The abstract for the 2007 article in the journal Violence Against Women entitled Race/Ethnicity, Religious Involvement, and Domestic Violence indicated:

“ The authors explored the relationship between religious involvement and intimate partner violence by analyzing data from the first wave of the National Survey of Families and Households. They found that: (a) religious involvement is correlated with reduced levels of domestic violence; (b) levels of domestic violence vary by race/ethnicity; (c) the effects of religious involvement on domestic violence vary by race/ethnicity; and (d) religious involvement, specifically church attendance, protects against domestic violence, and this protective effect is stronger for African American men and women and for Hispanic men, groups that, for a variety of reasons, experience elevated risk for this type of violence.[10] ”

A higher rate of domestic violence exists among cohabiting couples as compared with married couples[11] Atheists have lower marriage rates than theists (see: Atheism and marriage and Atheist marriages).

A September 9, 2012 article at Atlantic Wire wrote about the noted atheist John Lennon:

“ But people have mostly forgotten that Lennon was also physically abusive towards women. "I used to be cruel to my woman," he said, citing the lyrics to "Getting Better" in a Playboy interview near the end of his life. "Physically—any woman. I was a hitter. I couldn't express myself and I hit. I fought men and I hit women." In his biography The Lives of John Lennon, Albert Goldman also maintains that Lennon was guilty of spousal abuse.[12] ”

For more information, please see: Irreligion and domestic violence

Secular Europe and domestic violence

See also: Secular Europe and domestic violence and Atheistic Sweden and rape

Sweden is one of the most atheistic countries in the world.[13] In Sweden, 81 percent of women said they had been harassed at some point after the age of 15 - compared to the EU average of 55 percent.[14]

In March 2014, the Swedish news website The Local published an article entitled Sweden stands out in domestic violence study which declared:

“ A new EU review of violence against women has revealed that one in three European women has been assaulted, and one in twenty has been raped, with the Scandinavian countries at the top of the league tables.

In the Scandinavian countries, in contrast, around half of the women reported physical or sexual violence, which researchers at the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights said could have several explanations...

In Sweden, 81 percent of women said they had been harassed at some point after the age of 15 - compared to the EU average of 55 percent. After Sweden, which had the highest rate, Denmark, France, the Netherland and Finland all saw rates above 70 percent. The EU member state with the lowest rate - 24 percent - was Bulgaria.[14]

”

Sweden is one of the most atheistic countries in the world and the website adherents.com reported that in 2005 46 - 85% of Swedes were agnostics/atheists/non-believers in God.[13] Sweden also has the 3rd highest rate of belief in evolution as far as Western World nations.[15]

See also: Atheistic Sweden and rape and Sexual immorality and Sweden

For more information, please see: Irreligion and domestic violence

Irreligion, alcoholism and domestic abuse

See also: Atheist Americans, gender and alcoholism

According to the World Health Organization, "Evidence suggests that alcohol use increases the occurrence and severity of domestic violence".[16]

A 2010 Scientific American column article indicates concerning domestic violence that "Women suffer close to two thirds of the injuries... In addition, women and men differ in the severity of their actions; women are more likely to scratch or slap their partners, men more commonly punch or choke their partners."[17]

Alcoholism was a serious social problem in the former atheistic Soviet Union.[18] Between 1940 and 1980, this atheist state had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.[19]

Atheists and atheistic societies often have significant problems with excess alcohol usage (For more information please see: Atheism and alcoholism).

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC):

“ Men are more likely than women to drink excessively. Excessive drinking is associated with significant increases in short-term risks to health and safety, and the risk increases as the amount of drinking increases. Men are also more likely than women to take other risks (e.g., drive fast or without a safety belt), when combined with excessive drinking, further increasing their risk of injury or death.

Approximately 63% of adult men reported drinking alcohol in the last 30 days. Men (24%) were two times more likely to binge drink than women during the same time period.

Men average about 12.5 binge drinking episodes per person per year, while women average about 2.7 binge drinking episodes per year.

Most people who binge drink are not alcoholics or alcohol dependent.

It is estimated that about 17% of men and about 8% of women will meet criteria for alcohol dependence at some point in their lives.[20]

”

Notes

  1. ↑ Investigating atheism: Marxism. University of Cambridge (2008). Retrieved on July 17, 2014. “The most notable spread of atheism was achieved through the success of the 1917 Russian Revolution, which brought the Marxist-Leninists to power. For the first time in history, atheism thus became the official ideology of a state.”
  2. ↑ Multiple references:
  3. ↑ Rummel, R. J. (November 1993). "How many did communist regimes murder?" University of Hawaii website; Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War. Retrieved July 19, 2014.
  4. ↑ Ammi, Ken (June 11, 2009). "Atheism [quoting Vox Day]". Creation Ministries International. Retrieved on July 19, 2014.
  5. ↑ The War on religion
  6. ↑ Multiple references:
  7. ↑ Multiple references:
    • Hunt, Lynn and Censer, Jack (2001). "War, Terror and Resistence", ch. 7, p. 3. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution website. George Mason University website/Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media website.
    • O'Leary, Margaret R. (June 1, 2012). Forging Freedom: The Life of Cerf Berr of M Delsheim (iUniverse), pp. 1-2.
  8. ↑ Multiple references:
    James Adair (2007). Christianity: The eBook. JBE Online Books, 461. Retrieved on July 18, 2014. “Although the Civil Constitution called for religious liberty, which was extended to Jews as well as Christians, many revolutionaries pushed for the establishment of a new state religion, either the Cult of Reason (atheists) or the Cult of the Supreme Being (Deists). Changes to the calendar eliminated references to Christian holidays, and even the ancient seven-day week, and a list of officially recognized saints included such famous thinkers such as Socrates, Jesus, Marcus Aurelius, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. A period of political persecution, often with religious overtones, broke out, known as the Reign of Terror. Thousands of people were executed by the guillotine, including many of the original leaders of the French Revolution.” 
    William Belsham (1801). Memoirs of the Reign of George III. to the Session of Parliament ending A.D. 1793, Volume 5. G.G. & J. Robinson, 105–6. Retrieved on July 18, 2014. “In allusion to the monstrous transactions of this portentous period, it has been eloquently and energetically observed, 'that the reign of atheism in France was avowed the reign of terror. In the full madness of their career, in the highest climax of their horrors, they shut up the temples of God, abolished His worship, and proclaimed death to be an eternal sleep:—in the very centre of Christendom, Revelation underwent a total eclipse, while atheism, performing on a darkened theatre its strange and fearful tragedy, confounded the first elements of society, blended every age, rank, and sex, indiscriminate proscription and massacre, and convulsed all Europe to its centre, that the imperishable memorial of these events might teach the last generations of mankind to consider religion as the pillar of society, the parent of social order, and the safe-guard of nations.'
    "It is wonderful that, amid the horrors of this dismal period, while 'the death dance of democratic revolution' was still in rapid movement, among the tears of affliction, and the cries of despair, 'the masque, the song, the theatric scene, the buffoon laughter, went on as regularly as in the gay hour of festive peace.'”     
    William Kilpatrick (2012). Christianity, Islam, and Atheism: The Struggle for the Soul of the West. Ignatius Press, 57. Retrieved on July 18, 2014. “Actually, it's helpful to think in terms of two Enlightenments: the Enlightenment that cut itself off from God. The former led to the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence, the abolition of slavery, and the civil rights movement. The latter led to the French Revolution, the Reign of Terror, the suppression of church by state, and the godless philosophies of Marx and Nietzsche and their offspring—National Socialism and communism. More recently the abandonment of God has led to the regime of cultural relativism that regards rights as arbitrary constructions.
    "It's this second Enlightenment tradition that Cardinal Ratzinger referred to when he wrote, 'The radical detachment of the Enlightenment philosophy from its roots ultimately leads it to dispense with man.' Actually this transition happened not 'ultimately' but almost immediately. The first instance occurred when Enlightenment worship of abstract 'reason' and 'liberty' degenerated quickly into the mass murders committed during the antireligious Reign of Terror in France. 'Liberty, what crimes are committed in your name', said Madam Rolande as she faced the statue of Liberty in the Place de la Revolution movements before her death at the guillotine. She was one of the early victims of a succession of secular systems based on rootless notions of 'liberty', 'equality', and 'reason'.
    "As many historians have pointed out, the atheist regimes of modern times are guilty of far more crimes than any committed in the name of religion. Communist governments alone were guilty of more than one hundred million murders, most of them committed against their own people.”     
  9. ↑ 4 Things the Atheist Movement Has Done Badly (and How to Do Them Better) by Adam Lee, Alternet
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Ellison, Christopher L. et al. (November 2007). "Race/Ethnicity, Religious Involvement, and Domestic Violence". Violence Against Women, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 1094-1112, doi:10.1177/1077801207308259. Retrieved from Sage Journals archive.
  11. ↑ Kenney, C. T. and McLanahan, S. S. (February 2006). [abstract of] "Why are cohabiting relationships more violent than marriages?" Demography, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 127-40. Abstract retrieved from U. S. National Institute of Health/National Library of Medicine/National Center for Biotechnology Information/PubMed.
  12. ↑ Wagner, David (September 19, 2012). "John Lennon and Chris Brown have something in common". The Wire website.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "The largest atheist/agnostic populations: Top 50 countries with highest proportion of atheists / agnostics (Zuckerman, 2005)" (2005). Adherents.com/Largest religious communities.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Törnkvist, Ann (March 5, 2014, 8:34). "Sweden stands out in domestic violence study". The Local.
  15. ↑ Owen, James (August 10, 2006). "Evolution less accepted in U.S. than other Western countries, study finds [photo and caption]". National Geographic News.
  16. ↑ "World Health Organization Intimate Partner Violence and Alcohol Fact Sheet" (2005 or 2006). www.Who.int/Violence and Injury Prevention/Violence/Fact Sheets.
  17. ↑ Arkowitz, Hal and Lilienfeld, Scott O. (May–June 2010). "Are men the more belligerent sex? Men are more dangerous, but women can be just as aggressive". Mind. Retrieved from Scientific American website.
  18. ↑ Pomerlau, Joceline, et. al. (May–June 2008). "Hazardous alcohol drinking in the former Soviet Union: A cross-sectional study of eight countries". Alcohol and Alcoholism, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 351-9. Retrieved from PubMed.gov
  19. ↑ Anderson, Sandra C. and Hibbs, Valerie K. (October 1992). "Alcoholism in the Soviet Union" [first page]. International Social Work, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 441-53 [fee or registration required for full article]. First page retrieved from Sage journals/International Social Work.
  20. ↑ "Excessive alcohol use and risks to men's health" (November 19, 2014). U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website/Alcohol and Public Health/Fact Sheets
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