Difference between revisions of "Islam"

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'''Islam''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Abrahamic religion]] based on the teachings of [[Muhammad]], a seventh century [[Arab]] religious and [[politics|political]] figure. The word "Islam" means "submission [to Allah]" in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].  
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:''For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see [[Islam (disambiguation)]].''
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[[Image:Mosque.Qibla.01.jpg|thumb|right|Muslims performing [[salah]] (Islamic prayer)]]
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'''Islam''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}; pronounced: {{IPA|[ɪs.ˈlæːm]}}<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} or {{IPA|/s/}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced as in ''father,'' as in ''cat,'' or when the stress is on the ''i'' as in the ''a'' of ''sofa'' (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPA-en|ˈɪzləm/, /ˈɪsləm/, /ɪzˈlɑːm/, /ɪsˈlɑːm}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPA-en|ˈɪzlɑːm/, /ˈɪslɑːm}} (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref>) is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Abrahamic religion]] originating with the teachings of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], a 7th century [[Arab]] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to [[God in Islam|God]] ({{lang-ar|الله}}, Allāh).<ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1 USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> An adherent of Islam is known as a [[Muslim]], meaning "one who submits [to God]".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Lanes Lexicon">{{cite web|url=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf|title=Lane's lexicon |accessdate=2007-07-03|format=PDF}}</ref> The word ''Muslim'' is the participle of the same verb of which ''Islām'' is the infinitive. <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON TALK-->There are between 1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the [[major religious groups|second-largest religion in the world]], after [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam |title=Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=HTML |work= }}</ref>
  
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A follower of Islam is called a Muslim or Moslem, a term which means "one who submits (to God)". The older term [[Mohammedan]] means "follower of Muhammad", and has been used for centuries. Muslims do not use it today to avoid confusing worship of [[Muhammad]] with worship of [[Allah]]<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie. ''Islam: An Introduction''. State University of New York Press, 1992.</ref>. Muslims follow the teaching of Muhammad, whom they believe to be [[God]]'s last and greatest [[prophet]]. The faith teaches that the [[Archangel]] [[Gabriel]] appeared to him.
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Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] the [[Qur'an]] to Muhammad, God's [[Seal of the prophets|final prophet]], through the angel [[Jibreel|Gabriel]], and regard the Qur'an and the [[Sunnah]] (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See:
  
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Muslims believe that God ("Allah", '''الله''' in [[Arabic]]) revealed the [[Qur'an]] (or Koran) to Muhammad and, despite his illiteracy, caused him to transcribe it <ref>Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not.(Surah 96:1-5)</ref>. The [[Qur'an]] is considered to be the pure and [[holy]] word of God. Like [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]], Islam originated in the [[Middle East]].  Islam claims to trace its roots back to [[Abraham]]. Muslims do not believe that Muhammad was the founder of Islam, rather that he restored the original faith of Abraham and the prophets, which had been corrupted and/or misinterpreted over time. Based upon this belief, [[the Bible]], [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]], is believed to have become corrupted as well.
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*Esposito (1996), p.41
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*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JulRefl2y6.html Sources of Islam]</ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of [[Ibrahim|Abraham]], [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]], [[Islamic view of Jesus|Jesus]], and other [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]]. Islamic tradition holds that [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s [[Tahrif|distorted the revelations]] God gave to these prophets by either altering the text, introducing a false interpretation, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See:
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*Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
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*Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
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*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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[[Image:Mecca.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Mecca]], the Islamic holy city.]]
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Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like [[Islamic dietary laws|dietary laws]] and [[Islamic banking|banking]] to [[jihad|warfare]] and [[zakat|welfare]].<ref>See:
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Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.4 billion followers, the number of Muslims is rapidly growing, mainly due to high birth rates, in both Muslim-majority and other countries . Conversions to Christianity (from ''any'' faith or lack thereof) outnumber those to Islam, but can not keep up with the birthrate discrepancy.<ref>[http://www.bible.ca/global-religion-statistics-world-christian-encyclopedia.htm World Christian Encyclopedia]</ref>
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<ref>[http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/AlJazeerahAfrica.php Translation of AL-Jazeerah interview between Maher Abdallah and Shiekh Ahmed Katani]</ref>
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==Historical Background==
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
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According to Islamic belief, in 610 A.D., [[Muhammad]], a 40-year-old merchant of the Quraysh tribe in [[Mecca]], in the Arabian desert (now eastern [[Saudi Arabia]]), was commanded by the angel [[Gabriel]] to "recite" the message of [[Allah]] (Arabic for God). Gabriel said mankind had lost sight of Allah's previous messages to earlier prophets, [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], and [[Jesus]], among others, and that Muhammad was to spread Allah's message to all people so that mankind would know how to live, how to show respect for Allah, and how to prepare for the judgement day. The message to Muhammad was to be God's last; Muhammad was the "seal of the prophets." Muhammad won some converts to Islam in his local area, but his [[monotheist]] preaching threatened to undermine the profitable [[polytheist]] pilgrim traffic supporting many Meccan merchants. In 622 A.D., the merchants drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca to the city of Yathrib (later renamed [[Medina]], or city - as in the city of the prophet). This flight (hijra) from Mecca to Medina marks the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar, and is celebrated each year in the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. Muhammad's forces starting attacking the trade caravans going in and out of Mecca, cutting off its economic lifeline.  After a series of battles between the Meccans and Muhammad's forces, Mecca finally accepted Muhammad's ultimatum to succumb and convert to Islam.  The city welcomed the prophet back in 630. Muhammad died in 632. It is believed that Muhammed is the last Prophet. Tribal elders elected [[Abu Bakr]] to be Muhammad's successor, or [[Caliph]] (Khalifa). Abu Bakr united the tribes of the Arabian peninsula during his two years as head of the new faith. Upon his death, the elders elected [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] the next Caliph. During Umar's ten year reign, Islam invaded and spread through the sword into [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Iran]]. Umar was assassinated by a Persian (modern day Iran) in 644, and was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], who continued the invasions to spread Islam into [[North Africa]], [[Cyprus]], the rest of Iran, [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Over the next two centuries, Islamic armies continued to expanded Islam's empire into sub-Saharan Africa, [[Spain]], Southeast and Central Asia, and [[Turkey]].
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>{{Islam}}
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Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85%) and [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] (15%). The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Islam is the predominant religion in [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], as well as in major parts of [[Asia]]. Large communities are also found in [[Islam in China|China]], the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Islam in Russia|Russia]]. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world, such as [[Western Europe]]. About 20% of Muslims live in [[Arab world|Arab countries]],<ref>See:
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*Esposito (2002b), p.21
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*Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref> 30% in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and 15.6% in [[Indonesia]], the largest Muslim country by population.<ref> See [[Demographics of Islam|these figures]]</ref>
  
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==Divisions Within Islam==
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==Etymology and meaning==
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Uthman was assassinated in 656 A.D. by soldiers who then installed Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law, as [[Caliph]]. Ali's followers believed Muhammad had chosen Ali to be Muhammad's heir, and had disagreed with the selections of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman as Caliphs. Ali's claim to the position was challenged by Muawiyah, a kinsman of the murdered Uthman. Five years later, Ali was assassinated by Kharjites, religious dissidents who broke away from the main body of Muslims because they rejected Ali's accepting arbitration to resolve his leadership dispute with Muawiyah. Ali's supporters, or the Shiah al-Ali (or Shiat Ali, partisans of Ali) believed that Ali was the true Caliph and was, in part, divinely inspired. Ali's sons, Hassan and Husayn followed as [[Shia]] Caliphs, Hassan dying in 669 or 670 A.D., possibly by poisoning, and Husayn slain by soldiers of his rival, the [[Sunni]] Caliph Yazid, in 680 A.D.
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{{main|S-L-M}}
  
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The Shia Muslim community has divided further as followers coalesced around several of Ali's descendants or successors, called [[Imam]]s. The "twelvers," predominant in Iran, believe the twelfth Imam is in hiding and will reveal himself just before judgement day. Ismailis rejected the seventh Imam and practice a spirituality that seeks hidden meaning in scripture. Ismailis ruled much of [[North Africa]] as the [[Fatimid Dynasty]] of [[Egypt]] in the tenth through the twelfth centuries, and today are found primarily in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]], and [[India]]. The Sunni majority reject the premise that men can be divine, including Muhammad, Ali, or Jesus, and did not accept any of the Imams who followed Ali. Sunnis remain more committed to traditions and less inclined to accept Shia mysticism. Today, about 15% of the world's Muslims are Shia and 85% are orthodox Sunni.  
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The word ''Islam'' is a [[verbal noun]] originating from the [[triliteral]] root ''s-l-m'', and is derived from the [[Arabic grammar#Verb|Arabic verb]] ''Aslama'', which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus,  Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshipping him, following his commands, and avoiding [[polytheism]]. The word is given a number of meanings in the [[Qur'an]]. In some verses (''[[ayat]]''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and ''[[Deen (Arabic term)|dīn]]'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See:
  
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There are other factions within Islam. Sufis, a name apparently taken from the wool garments they wear, developed around mystical practices and trance-induced revelations. Sufis are found today in [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], and parts of [[Africa]]. Other movements have taken reform tracks, such as the Unitarians of [[Saudi Arabia]], also called [[Wahhabi]]s after their 18th century reformist founder Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The conservative Wahhabis are found today in Saudi Arabia and [[Qatar]]. Today the Wahhabi line has a tendency to produce extremists, such as [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Some critics would argue that the [[Taliban]] of Afghanistan took conservative reform to an extreme. Other sects or break-away groups include, among others, the Alawis found in Syria and Turkey, the [[Druze]] in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, the Ibadhis (Kharjites) in Oman and Africa, the Ahmadiya of Pakistan, and the Zaydis of Yemen.  
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*{{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of ''islam'', ''[[Iman (concept)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence); where it represents acts of worship (''`[[ibadah|ibādah]]'') and Islamic law (''[[sharia]]'').<ref>Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 192</ref>
  
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==Religious Guidance==
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==Articles of faith==
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During his lifetime, Muhammad's companions learned and later transcribed the verses (surrahs) of the Quran as Muhammad spoke them. In Islam, the teachings of Mohammed were believed to be direct divine revelation from God. Some utterances that Mohammed was unsure about, dubbed the Satanic verses, would later be incorporated in a novel in modern times by [[Salmon Rushdie]] who would then be subject to a death degree from the leader of Iran for his writing.
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{{main|Aqidah|Iman}}
  
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The third Caliph, Uthman, collected and codified the various versions of the surrahs into one written [[Quran]] that became the standard Arabic text used by the world's Muslims today.  The Quran is longer than the Bible and written in general order of longest chapters to shortest rather than in any order of when they were spoken, sometimes making the work appear to be confusing. In all there are 114 chapters. Most of the later recorded sayings of Mohammed, which were also more warlike, actually appear earlier in the text. Present-day Muslims look first to the Quran as a guide to life, then to the [[Sunnah]], or the way of the Prophet (his life as an example for others) as recorded by his early companions, and then to the [[Hadith]], a collection of the Prophet's sayings, comments, advice, and descriptions.
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The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [[Angels in Islam|angels]], his [[Prophets in Islam|messengers]], and in the "[[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between [[Kalam|particular sects]]. The [[Sunni]] concept of predestination is called [[Qadr (doctrine)|divine decree]],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the [[Shi'a]] version is called [[Adalah|divine justice]]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of ''[[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imamah]]'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the [[Imam]]s.<ref>See:
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*Farah (2003), p.109
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*Momen (1987), p.176</ref>
  
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Frequently, Muslims disagreed over how to interpret certain passages in the Quran, the Sunnah, or the Hadith in their search for the ideal life and perfect path to heaven. From these interpretations Sunni Muslims developed four schools of law, or interpretations of law, named after their founders or early leaders: the Hanbali, considered the most strict school and predominant today in Saudi Arabia; Shafi, the school of widest acceptance, found in Egypt, parts of Palestine-Syria, south Arabia, and the Far East; Maliki, prevalent in North Africa, Sudan, and Nigeria; and Hanafi, considered the most moderate school, predominant in Ottoman Turkey and today found primarily on the Levant and Indian subcontinent. Frequently, Muslim countries have two separate legal systems, one for civil, criminal, or commercial law, and a second, and separate, system for religious law. Religious courts and their judges (qadis) might handle issues dealing with marriage, divorce, child custody, inheritance, religious education, charitable or religious property (Waqf), or family matters. Among Middle Eastern countries, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Amirates, and Yemen have Shariah courts serving alongside their secular courts or have adopted [[Sharia]]h (Islamic law) as the basis of their legal systems.
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Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the [[Gabriel|archangel Gabriel]] (''Jibrīl''). For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine [[revelation]]—either directly from God or through angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], [[Islamic view of Noah|Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Musa|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref>See:
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*Momem (1987), p.176
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the [[proper name]] ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>See:
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*{{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}}
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*"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref>
  
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====Clergy====
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As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in [[Arabia]] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s "[[People of the Book]]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospels]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted" />
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Sunni Islam does not have a priesthood or clerical hierarchy to conduct religious services or interpret scripture, but it does have prayer leaders, called Imams, and religious scholars, called Ulama, who often are educated men familiar with the Quran and able to offer commentaries on Quranic verses. Sunni Muslims also respect the teachings and interpretations of scholars, judges, and academics who may interpret laws, write treatises on Sharia (religious law) or Hadith, and issue Fatwas, religious declarations intended to enlighten or guide Muslims.  
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Shia Islam has a hierarchy that resembles a priesthood. Mullahs are prayer leaders, but usually do not interpret religious law. Mujtahids are religious scholars who may interpret law or passages from the Quran or Hadith. The lower order of Mujtahids are called Hojjatolislam. Ayat Allah (literally sign of God, also Ayatollah) is a higher order of Mujtahid who may issue Fatwas, or religious edicts, in addition to leading Islamic schools, interpreting religious law and the Quran, and offering sermons or discourses on proper Islamic behavior.
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===God===
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{{main|God in Islam}}
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{{seealso|Oneness of God (Islam)|Allah}}
  
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===Five Pillars of Islam===
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Islam's fundamental theological concept is ''[[tawhīd]]''—the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words ''[[al-]]'' (the) and ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the god" (''{{transl|ar|ISO|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See:
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*'''Shahadah (Profession of Faith)''' -The Shahadah is the Muslim profession of faith. 'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh, a loose English translation reads "''There is none worthy of worship except God, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of God''" This testament can be seen as the foundation of all of the other tenets of Islam.
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*"Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking [[Christian]]s and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the ''[[shahadah]]'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that [[Jesus]] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, [[Jesus]] was just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter (''[[sura]]'') of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See:
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*{{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
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*Esposito (2004), p.22
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*Griffith (2006), p.248
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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*'''Salat (Ritual Prayer)''' -All Muslims are required to Pray to God five times each day while facing [[Mecca]]. 
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===Qur'an===
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{{main|Islamic holy books|Qur'an}}
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{{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
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[[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Al-Fatiha|first sura]] in a Qur'anic manuscript by [[Hattat Aziz Efendi]]]]
  
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*'''Zakat (Charity)''' Able Muslims must donate to the poor based on the wealth one has accumulated. In current usage it is interpreted as 2.5% of the value of most valuables and savings held for a full [[lunar year]].  
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Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central [[religious text]] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (''[[sahabah]]'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of [[Abu Bakr]], the first [[caliph]], and was standardized under the administration of [[Uthman]], the third caliph. From textual evidence [[Islamic studies]] scholars find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.<ref>See:
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*William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32
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*Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', p.51
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*F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>
  
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*'''Sawm (Fasting)''' All able-bodied Muslims (children, the elderly, and the ill are exempt) must fast during daylight hours during the daylight hours of the entire month of [[Ramadan]]. According to Muslims, this purifies the body and soul. Some Muslim sects allow military, police and emergency services personnel to receive an exemption from fasting from an imam, on the grounds that their work supports the community or national good.
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The Qur'an is divided into 114 [[sura]]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 ''[[ayah|āyāt]]'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See:
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
  
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*'''Hajj (Pilgrimage)''' All able-bodied Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives.
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</ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''[[hadith]]'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>See:
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*Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>
  
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==Other Aspects of Islam==
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The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See:
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[[Image:Quran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pages from the Qur'an, the holy book of the Islamic religion.]]
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*Teece (2003), pp.12,13
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====Jihad====
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*C. Turner (2006), p.42
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Jihad is the "effort" or "struggle" each Muslim faces in the everyday trials of life, such as the effort to get better grades in school, or the striving to achieve better results from a job, or the struggle to avoid sinful temptations. Jihad also can be applied to warfare; participating in jihad in Allah's cause was the third most important good deed listed in the Hadith, after prayer and honoring one's parents. Jihad often was a rallying cry for the military spread of Islam in the seventh through tenth centuries against non-Muslims.
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology|two different theories]] about this term and its formation.</ref>
  
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====Osama bin Laden and Fundamentalists====
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===Angels===
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[[Osama bin Laden]], a follower of a particular brand of Islam popular in Saudi Arabia, has stated that Islam is at war with the United States and its allies. Some observers maintain that the number of Muslims who believe as bin Laden does is growing, and others go further to suggest that all "fundamentalist" Muslims are enemies of the West. But other observers differentiate between conservative "fundamentalists" and the "extremists" who follow bin Laden or other terrorists. These observers suggest that the fundamentalists disagree with bin Laden as much as do Westerners.  It is hard to know the truth.  Many westerners are still haunted by the images of cheering crowds dancing in the streets when the 9/11 attacks were announced and were disappointed at the lack of prominent condemnation of the attack from Islamic circles worldwide.
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{{main|Angels in Islam}}
  
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====People of the Book====
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Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malakh'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess [[free will]], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See:
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Christians and Jews are called "people of the Book" in the Koran and are considered earlier forerunners to Islam and viewed as brothers as long as they pay an extra tax when under Islamic rule. Islam, tracing its roots back to Abraham through his son Ishmael instead of Isaac as the Jews did, believes that they are the descendants of God's promise.  Islam believes that both the Old and New Testament were corrupted and corrected by the Koran, but there is still an earlier link between the three religions. The view of Jews and Christians varied within different parts of the Koran and Islamic history. Much of current Islamic culture, even in places that were once very tolerant such as Egypt, has seen an upsurge in persecution and violence against Christians and Jews.
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*{{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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====Women in Islam====
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===Muhammad===
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For the most part, the Quran treats men and [[woman|women]] equally, applies the same injunctions and prohibitions to men and women, and grants many of the same privileges and benefits. But women are treated separately in certain instances. For example, women are required to "... draw their outer garments around them ... that they may be known (to be Muslims) and not annoyed (by men)." (Quran 33:59) Covering the head and body in public (hijab) is viewed by many Muslim women as a protection of their modesty, a way to discourage men's covetous eyes. The principle of hijab is applied in different ways: a small scarf around the head and regular "street clothes" may be voluntary and acceptable in Cairo or Damascus but a full length opaque "Burqa" was enforced in Taliban Afghanistan. The treatment of women may depend upon rural or urban settings, educational level, society norms, tradition, or other factors. As of 2008, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are the only two Middle Eastern countries where the government requires women to wear some form of modest garb.
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{{main|Muhammad}}
  
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Islamic dress is a regular grounds for conflict in multicultural education.
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Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]]—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See:
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*Esposito (1998), p.12
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
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*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his [[Sahaba|companions]].<ref>See:
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*{{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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Treatment of women varies widely by country. In the Islamic state of Saudi Arabia women are forbidden from driving a car, traveling in public without their husband or a male family member as an escort, leaving their home without wearing Islamic dress, working or voting. Though not formally forbidden from owning property, they have no way of obtaining this as work is forbidden and only males are permitted to inherit - should a man die, his brothers, sons and father will all inherit before his wife. These restrictions are part of the criminal law of the country, and enforced by the police and a special Islamic office. Pakistan has similar restrictions, but to a lesser extent. In contrast, Turkey has a majority Muslim population yet still grants women rights near-equal to those of men including property ownership, employment, and education to university level.
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[[Image:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Masjid al-Nabawi]] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in [[Medina|Madina]] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]]
  
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Muslim apologists suggest the extremely repressive policies of countries such as Saudi Arabia and Pakistan are cultural rather than religious, and point to the more moderate Islam practiced in Turkey as a demonstration that Islam and womens' rights are compatible, and point to past Christian-dominated cultures such as medieval Europe as examples that other religions can be distorted to justify oppression.
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During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of [[Mecca]], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") to the city of [[Medina]] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (''[[Muhajirun]]''), Muhammad established his political and [[Theocracy|religious authority]]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the [[Battle of Uhud]] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:
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*F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
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*Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[Conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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Muslim women's status is controversial. Some critics claim that Muslim men oppress Muslim women by compelling them to remain hidden behind the veil, sequestered in the home, and ignorant of the world by denying them access to education and worldly opportunities. Defenders of some practices suggest that many of them, such as the veil, are cultural traditions that pre-date Islam and are intended to protect, not constrict, women, or that many Muslim women adopt the life style of the veil voluntarily. There are Muslim women who agree and disagree with the critics.
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In Islam, the "[[normative]]" example of Muhammad's life is called the ''[[Sunnah]]'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as [[hadith]] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in [[Sharia|Islamic law]], and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See:
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*''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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====Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem====
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=== Resurrection and judgment ===
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Muhammad's home city of Mecca was the site of his earliest preaching and conversions, and is the location of the Kaaba, traditionally held to be the foundation stone of the first mosque built by Adam and later restored by Abraham, and now the focus of the annual pilgrimage (hajj). Some historians suggest that the Kaaba, a black stone probably meteoric in origin, was venerated by pre-Islamic polytheistic religions.
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{{main|Qiyama}}
  
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At first, Jerusalem was Islam's holy city and the focus of prayers, but Mecca became the center of Islam after Muhammad's return in 630. Medina, because of its early association with Muhammad and as the site of Muhammad's tomb, is second in importance to Mecca. Jerusalem is revered by Muslims as the site of Solomon's temple, Abraham's near sacrifice of his son Ishmael, and the scene of Muhammad's miraculous midnight journey, the latter two now enshrined in the Dome of the Rock mosque. According to the Quran (Surrah 17:1, Isra) and Hadith, Muhammad and Gabriel were taken on winged mules from Mecca to Jerusalem, where they ascended through the seven heavens to the presence of Allah. During the visit, Muhammad learned, among other points, that Muslims were to pray five times each day and to honor Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the other prophets.  
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Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", ''[[Qiyamah|yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and [[tribulation]]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the [[hadith]], and also in the commentaries of [[Ulema|Islamic scholar]]s. The Qur'an emphasizes [[Resurrection of the Dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See:
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*"Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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====Restrictions====
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The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, [[riba|usury]] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (''[[jannah]]'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See:
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Observant Muslims are not supposed to eat pork and in general do not have dogs as pets; both swine and canines are considered unclean. Muslims are proscribed from drinking alcoholic beverages. Observant Muslims do not collect interest.
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*Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
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*"Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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====Non-Muslim Practices====
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===Predestination===
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Some practices have been associated with Islam because they occur in Islamic countries, but actually are not a part of Islam. For example, female circumcision is not mentioned in the Quran, but is mentioned in Hadith as an "honorable" but not obligatory condition. It is a pre-Islamic tradition in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, notably in Eritrea, Yemen, and Egypt. Another example of a practice that has been associated incorrectly with Islam is honor killing, in which a brother, father, or uncle "restores" or "defends" a family's honor by killing the sister, daughter, or niece that dishonored the family through unmarried pregnancy or promiscuous behavior. The "honor killing" is more ancient and possibly tribal in origin.
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{{main|Predestination in Islam|Adalah}}
  
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==Islam and Christianity==
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In accordance with the Islamic belief in [[predestination]], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See:
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While Muslims do not believe Jesus to be the Son of God or in the resurrection, they consider him and his mother to be of God's most important prophets (Marian and Isa) otherwise known as Mary and Jesus. However, the Qur'an warns against worshiping Jesus, Muhammad, and other humans for fear of [[idolatry]].<ref>[http://www.ccg.org/_domain/ccg.org/Islam/Islam.htm Christian Churches of God Articles on Islam], March 10, 2007</ref>
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*{{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}}
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*D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…"&nbsp;'&nbsp;"
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See:
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*Farah (2003), pp.119–122
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*Patton (1900), p.130</ref>
  
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The Qur'an states that Christians will be punished, though the nature of the punishment is not specified:
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The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the [[Mu'tazila]], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref>
  
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"Surely, disbelievers are those who said:
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==Duties and practices==
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'Allah is the third of the three (in a Trinity).' But there is no god but One, Allah.
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===Five Pillars===
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And if they cease not from what they say, verily, a painful torment will befall the disbelievers among them.
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{{main|Five Pillars of Islam}}
  
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Will they not repent to Allah and ask His Forgiveness? For Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most Merciful.
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[[Image:Arabic Plaque, Great Mosque, Xian.jpg|thumb|right|Islam's basic creed (''[[shahadah]]'') written on a plaque in the [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]], China]]
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[[Image:Kabaa.jpg|thumb|right|Rituals of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca.]]
  
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The Messiah , son of Mary, was no more than a Messenger; many were the Messengers that passed away before him. His mother was a Siddiqah (i.e. she believed in the words of God and His Books ).  
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[[The Five Pillars of Islam]] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See:
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They both used to eat food (as any other human eat).  
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*Momem (1987), p.178
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Look how We make the signs clear to them, yet look how they are deluded away (from the truth)."
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are:
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*The '''''[[shahadah]]''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See:
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*Farah (1994), p.135
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*Momen (1987), p.178
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*"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)</ref>
  
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Qur'an 5:73-75
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*'''''[[Salah]]''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called [[Adhan]] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the [[Arabic language]], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See:
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*Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
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*Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
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*Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
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*Momen (1987), p.178</ref>
  
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However, Islam does recognize Christians and Jews as "people of the book" since both refer to one God only, and recognize Abraham (Ibrahim in [[Arabic]]) as a founding prophet.
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*'''''[[Zakat]]''''', or [[alms|alms-giving]]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (''[[sadaqah]]''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a ''[[khums]]'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.<ref>See:
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*{{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
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*Esposito (2004), p.90
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*Momen (1987), p.179
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
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*'''''[[Sawm]]''''', or [[Sawm of Ramadan|fasting during the month of Ramadan]]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>See:
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*{{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
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*Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
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*{{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>
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*The '''''[[Hajj]]''''', which is the pilgrimage during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'' in the city of [[Mecca]]. Every [[able-bodied]] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in [[Ihram clothing|''Ihram'' clothing]], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]], touching the [[Black Stone]], running seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Marwah]], and symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] in [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See:
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*Farah (1994), pp.145–147
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*Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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Islam and Christianity both recognize that the theory of [[intelligent design]] is correct, and that [[evolution]] is a perversion of science by [[atheist]]s attempting to undermine religion.
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In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is [[jihad]], which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is ''[[Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf]]'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is ''[[Nahi-Anil-Munkar]]'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.<ref>Momen (1987), p.180</ref>
  
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==Islam and Paganism==
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===Law===
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{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}}
  
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Although Muslims profess belief in a single [[God]], some believe Islam has its roots in an earlier polytheistic system. By this thinking God is linked to an earlier moon deity, although it should be brought up that there is no mention of this in the Qur'an, where Allah is cited as the God of [[Abraham]].<ref>The Qur'an, Sura 37 [http://www.amazon.com/Holy-Quran-Allamah-Nooruddin/dp/0963206702]</ref><ref>Abramahov, "Islamic Theology". Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, 1988. [http://www.amazon.com/Islamic-Theology-Binyamin-Abrahamov/dp/0748611029/sr=8-4/qid=1172042917/ref=pd_bbs_sr_4/105-1837174-2630046?ie=UTF8&s=books]</ref>  
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The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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==Sharia==
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Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and [[Diplomacy|foreign relations]], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines ''[[hudud]]'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of [[Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|marriage]], and [[Qisas|restitution for injuries and murder]], as well as rules for [[sawm|fasting]], [[Sadaqah|charity]], and [[salat|prayer]]. However, these [[wajib|prescriptions]] and [[Haraam|prohibitions]] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See:
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[[Image:StarCresent.png|thumb|right|220px|The Star and Crescent is a symbol of Islam. It is featured in the national flag of [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tunisia]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].]]
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*Menski (2006), p.290
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[[Sharia]] is the body of Islamic law. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Muslim principles of jurisprudence. It is not actually part of the canonical Qur'an; that is to say, it is not believed to be the direct word of God by Muslims, but rather the interpretation of it.
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
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*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
  
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Sharia deals with many aspects of day-to-day life, including politics, economics, banking, business law, contract law, sexuality, marriage, divorce, and social issues. Some Islamic scholars accept Sharia as the body of precedent and legal theory established before the 19th century, while other scholars view Sharia as a changing body, and include Islamic legal theory from the contemporary period.{{fact}}
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''[[Fiqh]]'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as ''[[usul al-fiqh]]'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''[[ijma]]''), and analogical reasoning (''[[qiyas]]''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref>
  
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==Ex-Muslims==
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====Religion and state====
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[[Michelle Malkin]] highlights a group of Ex-Muslims hoping to change the terms of debate about Islam in Europe. Maryam Namazie, the head of the British group said "Too many things in the media and government policies have been geared to pandering to the political Islamic movements and Islamic organizations." <ref> [http://michellemalkin.com/2007/06/20/ex-muslims-stand-up-in-britain/ Ex-Muslims stand up in Britain]</ref>
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Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. [[Turkey]] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]. In contrast, the [[1979 Iranian Revolution]] replaced a mostly secular regime with an [[Islamic republic]] led by the [[Ruholla Khomeini|Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini]].<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2004), p. 84
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp. 502&ndash;507,845
 +
*Lewis (2003), p. 100</ref>
  
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----
+
===Etiquette and diet===
−
''Some of the text for this article was taken from "Islam: A Primer", Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2003), a work in the public domain''  [http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/islam.htm#back]
+
{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}
  
−
==Prominent Muslims==
+
Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu `alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcision of male offspring]]. [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]] include saying the ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>See:
−
*[[Muhammad]]
+
*{{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
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*[[Muhammad Ali]]
+
*Curtis (2005), p.164
−
*[[Ahmed Deedat]]
+
*Esposito (2002b), p.111
−
*[[Yusef Islam]]
+
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]
−
*[[Prince Naseem Hamed]]
+
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html The Dietary Laws]
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*[[Rezazadeh Hossein]]
+
*Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm Various types of the prayer]
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*[[Ayatollah Khomeini]]
+
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>
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*[[Ayatollah Khamenei]]
+
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*[[Mohammad Khatami]]
+
  
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== See also ==
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===Jihad===
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[[Image:Africa islam 87.jpg|thumb|Islam in Africa]]
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{{mainarticle|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}}
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*[[Arab American]]
+
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*[[Islamic republic]]
+
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*[[Qur'an]]
+
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*[[Ramadan]]
+
  
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==External links==
+
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "[[sixth pillar of Islam]]" by a minority of Muslim authorities.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18</ref> Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.<ref> Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18 </ref><ref> Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad </ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See:
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*[http://muslim-canada.org/islam_christianity.html Islam and Christianity] - excellent article comparing and contrasting the two.
+
*Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
−
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/ Quran online in English]
+
*Esposito (2003), p.93
−
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih Bukhari (Hadith collection) online in English]
+
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>See:
−
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim (Hadith collection) online in English]
+
*Firestone (1999) p.17
−
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Sunan Abu-Dawud (Hadith collection) online in English]
+
*"Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref>
−
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Malik's Muwatta  (Hadith collection) online in English]
+
 
 +
Within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the [[Defensive Jihad|defense]] or [[Offensive jihad|expansion]] of the [[Islamic state]], the ultimate purpose of which is to universalize Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or states which refuse to submit to the authority of Islam.<ref>Firestone (1999) p.17</ref><ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.<ref> Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118 </ref>
 +
 
 +
Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''[[fard|fard kifaya]]''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign ([[imam]]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="jihad" /> For most [[Twelvers|Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s occultation in 868 AD.<ref>cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106</ref>
 +
 
 +
==History==
 +
{{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}}
 +
 
 +
Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the [[Islamic world]]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the [[Qur'an]], an Islamic empire stretched from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to [[Central Asia]] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like [[Africa]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the [[Middle Ages]], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the [[Ottomans]] and [[Mughals]] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century [[Islamic revival|new religious and political movements]] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
 +
*Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Rise of the caliphate and Islamic civil war (632–750)===
 +
{{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Battle of Karbala}}
 +
 
 +
Muhammad began preaching Islam at [[Mecca]] before [[Hijra (Islam)|migrating]] to [[Medina]], from where he united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent [[sahaba|companion]] of Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [[caliph]]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [[Byzantine]] (or [[Eastern Roman Empire]]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See:
 +
*Holt (1977a), p.57
 +
*Hourani (2003), p.22
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.32
 +
*Madelung (1996), p.43
 +
*Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50</ref>
 +
 
 +
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.png|thumb|left|300px|The territory of the [[Caliphate]] in 750]]
 +
 
 +
His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See
 +
*Holt (1977a), p.74
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Following this, [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], who was governor of [[Levant]], seized power and began the [[Umayyad dynasty]].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref>
 +
 
 +
These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as [[Sunni]]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the [[Shi'a]].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "[[Second Fitna]]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]] and [[Al-Andalus]] (the [[Iberian Peninsula]], former [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] [[Hispania]]) and the [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]]} in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into [[Sindh]] and the fringes of [[Central Asia]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims<!-- The Islamic term is Zahid and there may be a better translation for it. --> began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] would inspire a movement that would evolve into [[Sufism]].<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims ([[Dhimmis]]) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (''[[mawali]]'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See:
 +
*Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
 +
*Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.56
 +
*Lewis (1993), p.84
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Golden Age (750–1258)===
 +
{{main|Islamic Golden Age}}
 +
{{see|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}
 +
 
 +
[[Image:Hattin.jpg|thumb|right|Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces]]
 +
 
 +
By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia [[emirate]]s formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized [[Muslim world]] where the Shia [[Fatimid]]s contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the [[Seljuq Turks]] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful [[Dawah|proselytism]] even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan [[West Africa]], [[Central Asia]], [[Volga Bulgaria]] and the [[Malay archipelago]].<ref name="EoI-Islam" />
 +
 
 +
The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The [[Six major Hadith collections|major hadith collections]] were compiled and the four modern Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist [[al-Shafi'i]]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) and [[Al-Farabi]] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian [[Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali]] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.160
 +
*Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. [[Sufism]] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among [[Middle ages|medieval]] [[ecclesiastical]] Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the [[antichrist]] and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.<ref>Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41</ref> In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], a few Arab philosophers like the poet [[Al-Ma'arri]] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher [[Maimonides]] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See:
 +
*Novak (February 1999)
 +
*Sahas (1997), pp.76–80</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion===
 +
{{main|Crusades|Reconquista}}
 +
{{see|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Ilkhanate}}
 +
 
 +
Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The [[Reconquista]] was launched against Muslim [[Taifa|principalities]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], and Muslim [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Italian possessions]] were lost to the [[Normans]]. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the [[Crusade]]s, bringing the Muslim world into conflict with [[Christendom]]. Initially successful in their goal of taking the [[Holy Land (Biblical)|Holy land]], and establishing the [[Crusader states]], Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as [[Saladin]]; who recaptured [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Second Crusade]].<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> In the east the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad in 1258]], as they overran in Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier [[Mamluk]]s took control in an uprising in 1250<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.292
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> and in alliance with the [[Golden Horde]] were able to halt the Mongol armies at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. [[Mongol empire|Mongol rule]] extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in [[Asia]] and Islam was temporarily replaced by [[Buddhism]] as the official religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol [[Khanate]]s converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the [[Indian subcontinent]].
 +
 
 +
===Turkish, Iranian and Indian empires (1030–1918)===
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The [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk Turks]] conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the ''de facto'' rulers of the caliphate. They captured [[Anatolia]] by defeating the [[Byzantine]]s at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous [[Turkic peoples|Turkic dynasties]]. In the 13th and 14th centuries the [[Ottoman empire]] (named after [[Osman I]]) emerged from among these ''"Ghazi emirates''" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the [[Balkans]], parts of [[Greece]], and western [[Anatolia]]. In 1453 under [[Mehmed II]] the Ottomans laid siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of Byzantium, [[Fall of Constantinople|which succumbed]] shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, [[cannon]]ry.<ref>See
 +
*Holt (1977a), p.263
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.250
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
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 +
Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of [[al-Ghazzali]] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the [[Masnavi]], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century [[Persian language|Persian]] poet [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
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 +
[[Image:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Taj Mahal]] is a [[mausoleum]] located in [[Agra]], India, that was built under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]]<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref>]]
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In the early 16th century, the Shi'i [[Safavid dynasty]] assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as [[Siege of Vienna|the gates of Vienna]] in 1529.<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, [[Delhi]] became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.<ref name="Ikram">Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press</ref> Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526) and the [[Mughal empire]] (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in [[South Asia]], but by the early-18th century the [[Maratha empire]] became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th century the [[British empire]] had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref>, and at the end of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled [[Kingdom of Mysore]]. In the 18th century the [[Wahhabi]] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher [[Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab|Ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See:
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.572
 +
*Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref>
 +
 
 +
By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the [[Ottoman empire]] had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]]. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of [[World War I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm] New Turkey</ref>
 +
 
 +
In the 19th century, the [[Salafi]], [[Deobandi]] and [[Barelwi]] movements were initiated.
 +
 
 +
===Modern times (1918–present)===
 +
{{see|Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Arab Revolt|Arab-Israeli conflict|Iranian revolution}}
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 +
By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After [[World War I]] losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of [[Israel]] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref>  During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and [[Indonesia]] to the [[Caribbean]], forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the [[Americas]].<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in [[Africa]] brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708</ref> The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim countries]], was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm Organization of the Islamic Conference]</ref>
 +
 
 +
The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Egypt and [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called [[Islamist]], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the [[Taliban]]), revolutionary movements replaced [[Secularism|secular]] regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[al-Qaeda]] engage in [[Islamic terrorism|terrorism]] to further their goals. In contrast, [[Liberal Islam]] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and [[human rights]]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
 +
*Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref>
 +
 
 +
Modern [[Criticism of Islam|critique of Islam]] includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]]. Critics like [[Ibn Warraq]] question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage [[antisemitic]] remarks by Muslim theologians.<ref>See:
 +
*Rippin (2001), p.288
 +
*{{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=[[The New York Review of Books]] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}
 +
 
 +
</ref> Such claims are disputed by Muslim writers like [[Fazlur Rahman Malik]],<ref>For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.</ref> [[Syed Ameer Ali]],<ref>For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by [[David Samuel Margoliouth]] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''[[Mohammed and the Rise of Islam]]''.</ref> [[Ahmed Deedat]],<ref>Westerlund (2003)</ref> and [[Yusuf Estes]].<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Advance, [[University of Connecticut]] | date=2003-11-17 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref> Others like [[Daniel Pipes]] and [[Martin Kramer]] focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.<ref>{{cite news | last=Bernstein | first=Richard | title= Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another | url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482 | publisher=[[The New York Times]] | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> [[Montgomery Watt]] and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.<ref>See:
 +
*Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
 +
*Watt (1974), p.231</ref> The rise of [[Islamophobia]], according to [[Carl Ernst]], had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.<ref>Ernst (2004), p.11</ref>
 +
 
 +
[[Pascal Bruckner]] and [[Paul Berman]] on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.<ref>{{cite magazine| last = Berman| first = Paul| authorlink = Paul Berman| title = Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism.| journal = [[The New Republic]]| publisher = | location = | date = June 4 2007| url = http://www.tnr.com/politics/story.html?id=fd52e6a4-efc5-42fd-983b-1282a16ac8dd}}</ref></blockquote>
 +
 
 +
==Community==
 +
{{main|Muslim world}}
 +
===Demographics===
 +
{{see also|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}}
 +
[[Image:World Muslim Population Map.png|right|350px|thumb|'''Muslim percentage of population by country''']]
 +
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON TALK-->Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1&nbsp;billion to 1.8&nbsp;billion. Approximately 85% are [[Sunni]] and 15% are [[Shi'a]], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]], and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with [[Indonesia]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]] having more than 100&nbsp;million adherents each.<ref name="Islam_by_country">{{cite web
 +
|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
 +
|title=Number of Muslim by country
 +
|publisher=nationmaster.com
 +
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20&nbsp;million Muslims in China.<ref>{{cite web
 +
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
 +
|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
 +
|year=2006
 +
|publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
 +
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> In the [[Middle East]], the non-Arab countries of [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in [[Africa]], [[Egypt]] and [[Nigeria]] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country" /> Islam is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many [[Europe]]an countries.<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
 +
 
 +
{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
 +
*{{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=[[2005-12-23]] | accessdate=2006-09-28}}
 +
*{{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=[[2003-02-13]] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Mosques===
 +
{{main|Mosque}}
 +
 
 +
A mosque is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as [[minaret]]s.<ref>See:
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Family life===
 +
{{seealso|Women and Islam}}
 +
The basic unit of Islamic society is the [[family]], and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of [[inheritance]] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[Marriage in Islam]] is a civil [[nikah|contract]] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
 +
*Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
 +
*The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
 +
*Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref>
 +
[[Image:Snowy Mosque.JPG|thumb|left|Canterbury Mosque, New Zealand; June 2006. Built over 1984-85 it was the world's southern-most mosque until 1999.]]
 +
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as ''[[Talaq (Nikah)|talaq]]'', which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".<ref>*"Talak". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as [[hijab|veiling]] and seclusion ([[purdah]]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as [[Polygamy in Islam|polygamy]], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain [[Islamist]] groups like the [[Taliban]] have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref>
 +
*Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
 +
</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Calendar===
 +
{{main|Islamic calendar}}
 +
 
 +
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]]. It is a [[lunar calendar]], with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See:
 +
*Adil (2002), p.288
 +
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.
 +
 
 +
Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in [[Seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''[[Ramadan]]'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]</ref>
 +
 
 +
==Other religions==
 +
{{main|Islam and other religions}}
 +
[[Image:Dome of the rock distance.jpg|thumb|right|A view of the [[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]], a holy site in both Islam and [[Judaism]] that has been a source of controversy]]
 +
[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]]
 +
 
 +
According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]].<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16</ref> At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19</ref> In this view, [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Nevi'im|Hebrew prophets]], and [[Jesus]] were all [[Prophets in Islam]], but their message and the texts of the [[Torah]] and the [[Gospels]] were [[tahrif|corrupted]] by [[Jew]]s and [[Christians]]. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 18</ref> The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.<ref>See:
 +
*Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
 +
*Lewis (1984), p. 39</ref>
 +
 
 +
Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as ''[[dhimmis]]'' ("protected peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (''[[jizya]]'') to the Islamic state and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their inferiority.<ref>See:
 +
*Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
 +
*Friedmann (2003), p. 37;</ref> The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus<ref>Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46</ref>, but not to [[atheist]]s or [[agnostic]]s.<ref>Lewis (2001), p.273</ref> Those who live in non-Muslim lands (''[[dar al-harb]]'') are known as ''[[harbi]]s'', and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 55</ref><ref>"Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[apostasy in Islam|Apostasy]] is prohibited, and is punishable by death.<ref>A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.</ref><ref>"Murtadd", ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref>
 +
 
 +
The [[Alevi]], [[Yazidi]], [[Druze]], [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community|Ahmadiyya]], [[Bábís|Bábí]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]] movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late 15th century [[Punjab region|Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and [[Hinduism]].<ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs" </ref>
 +
 
 +
==Denominations==
 +
{{main|Divisions of Islam}}
 +
[[Image:MuslimDistribution2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map showing distribution of Shia and Sunni Muslims in Africa, Asia and Europe.]]
 +
Islam consists of a number of [[religious denomination]]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and the [[Shi'a]], with [[Sufi]]sm generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other [[Islamic sects]].<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2002b), p.2
 +
*{{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Sunni===
 +
{{main|Sunni}}
 +
[[Sunni]] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In [[Arabic]], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four [[caliph]]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or [[madhhab]]s: [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], and [[Hanbali]]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (''[[bidah]]''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent [[Salafi]] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Shi'a===
 +
{{main|Shi'a}}
 +
{{see also|Succession to Muhammad}}
 +
[[Image:Divisions of Islam.png|thumb|right|Divisions of Islam]]
 +
The [[Shi'a]], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious [[Islamic leadership|leadership]] of [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]]s from the progeny of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ''[[ismah]]'', meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See
 +
*Lapidus (2002), p.46
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/p.php?p=shia'&url=Introduction Imamat, by [[Naser Makarem Shirazi]]]</ref> Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]].<ref>See:
 +
*Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
 +
*Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the [[Twelvers]] (''{{transl|ar|ISO|iṯnāʿašariyya}}''), while the others are the [[Ismaili]], the [[Sevener]]s, and the [[Zaidiyyah]].<ref>See:
 +
*Kramer (1987), [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm Syria's Alawis and Shi'ism pp.237–254]
 +
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Shia branches]</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Sufism===
 +
{{main|Sufism}}
 +
 
 +
Not strictly a denomination, [[Sufism]] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and [[Islamic law]] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified [[bidah|religious innovation]]. Most Sufi orders, or ''[[tariqa]]s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See:
 +
*Esposito (2003), p.302
 +
*Malik (2006), p.3
 +
*B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
 +
*{{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
===Others===
 +
The [[Kharijites]] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is [[Ibadism]]. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The [[Imam]]ate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in [[Oman]].<ref>See:
 +
*[http://www.uga.edu/islam/ibadis.html IBADI ISLAM: AN INTRODUCTION]
 +
*J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
 +
 
 +
==See also==
 +
{{portal}}
 +
{{Further|[[:Category:Islam]]}}
 +
{{Col-begin|width=}}
 +
 
 +
{{Col-1-of-2}}
 +
*[[Islamic Peace]]
 +
*[[Islamic art]]
 +
*[[Islamic economics]]
 +
*[[Islamic ethics]]
 +
*[[Islamic literature]]
 +
*[[Islamic studies]]
 +
*[[Islam and modernity]]
 +
*[[Islamism]]
 +
*[[Islamization]]
 +
*[[Mohammedanism]]
 +
 
 +
{{Col-2-of-2}}
 +
*[[List of Muslims]]
 +
*[[List of Muslim empires]]
 +
*[[List of notable converts to Islam]]
 +
*[[List of notable former Muslims]]
 +
*[[List of wars in the Muslim world]]
 +
*[[Timeline of Islamic history]]
 +
*[[Animal welfare in Islam]]
 +
*[[Children's rights in Islam]]
 +
*[[Prisoners rights in Islam]]
 +
*[[Persecution of Muslims]]
 +
*[[Prophets of Islam]]
 +
{{Col-end}}
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
{{reflist|2}}
+
=== Notes ===
 +
{{reflist|3}}
 +
|
 +
=== Books and journals ===
 +
<div class="references-small">
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |year=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1930409118}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-1860642579}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570034710}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195133986}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | id=ISBN 978-0813819464}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | id=ISBN 0-8135-2614-0}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | id=ISBN 0-8078-5577-4}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-510816-7}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 978-0195168860}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-512558-4}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | id=ISBN 978-0195182668}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | id=ISBN 978-0764122266}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 019-5125800}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0521026994}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=[[Mizan]] | publisher=[[Al-Mawrid|Dar al-Ishraq]] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0801883709}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240735}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=[[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, [[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=[[Malise Ruthven|Ruthven, Malise]] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Humphreys | first=Stephen | title=Between Memory and Desire | year=2005 | publisher=University of California Press | id=ISBN 052-0246918}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0813304533}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0521779333}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-7102-0462-0}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-1928-5258-2}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-0684832807}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0812695182}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0060516055}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0812967852}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521646960}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0415274087}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0521858593}}
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 |year=1985}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0300035315}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-06067-700-7}}
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=[[First Things]] |month=February | year=1999}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-87196-129-6}}
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |month=April | year=1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}}
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |year=1991}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-691-11553-2}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | id = ISBN 90-04-04854-5}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0415217811}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id = ISBN 01-92-80606-8}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-9004034952}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=[[Abdulaziz Sachedina|Sachedina]] | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0195119150}}
 +
*{{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research |year=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0231126670}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0195156492}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 1-82760-198-1}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam
 +
|publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | id=ISBN 0-87395-272-3}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0749647964}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Tolan | first=John V. | title=Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2002}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0195120582}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 |origyear = 1930 | id=ISBN 0-7146-1996-5}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0415174589}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521539064}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-1573927871}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-59102-068-9}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-85-224254-X}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | id=ISBN 0-19-881078-4}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | id=ISBN 9004120661}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | id=ISBN 0-292-79076-7}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | id=ISBN 0737701331}}
 +
 
 +
====Encyclopedias====
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] | year=1910}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online|Encyclopaedia Britannica Online]] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Josef W. Meri]] | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | publisher=[[Routledge]] | year=2005 | id=ISBN 041-5966906}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] | encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions | publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 087-7790442}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}}
 +
*{{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}}
 +
 
 +
===Further reading===
 +
*{{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0684825076}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240727}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-9960740799}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-9652240408}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | id=ISBN 9004038132}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | id=ISBN 978-0812692174}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | id=ISBN 978-0195090611}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0195102833}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=[[The Sealed Nectar]]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1591440710}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-1591440345}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | id=ISBN 978-0253216274}}
 +
*{{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 0-226-70281-2}}
 +
*Tausch, Arno (2008, with Christian Bischof, and Karl Mueller), "Muslim Calvinism”, internal security and the Lisbon process in Europe Amsterdam : Rozenberg Publishers
 +
*{{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | id=ISBN 978-0720610383}}</div>
 +
 
 +
==External links==
 +
{{sisterlinks}}
 +
;Academic resources
 +
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts]
 +
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)]
 +
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=2 Unit on Islam] from the [[NITLE]] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
 +
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam Islam], article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online''
 +
 
 +
;Directories
 +
*Islam in [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/euroislam.html Western Europe], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/UKIslam.html the United Kingdom], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Germany] and [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/sasislam.html South Asia]
 +
*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}
 +
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29 Islam (Bookshelf)] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
 +
 
 +
;Islam - text, audio and video
 +
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16955/16955.zip Three Translations of The Koran (Al-Qur'an) side by side]
 +
*[http://www.ikre-bismi-rabbike.net/kuran.php Kur'an audio (recordings of many Qur'an recitals - easy to stream and play)]
 +
*[http://www.islaminside.org/audio.php Quranic auido downloadable or streamable by different reciters]
 +
*[http://www.guidedways.com/quranreciter/ Qur'an audio and reading material in numerous languages]
 +
 
 +
;Islam and the arts
 +
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ BBC Islam Focus]
 +
*[http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art]
 +
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim Heritage] (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
 +
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/ Islamic Architecture (IAORG)] illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
 +
 
 +
<!--spacing, please do not remove-->
 +
 
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{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
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{{Religion topics}}
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{{featured article}}
  
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[[Category:Islam| ]]
  
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[[zh:伊斯兰教]]

Revision as of 12:37, November 9, 2008

Template:Pp-semi

For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see Islam (disambiguation).
File:Mosque.Qibla.01.jpg
Muslims performing salah (Islamic prayer)

Islam (Arabic: Template:Audio; pronounced: Template:IPA[note 1]) is a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion originating with the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. The word Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God (Template:Lang-ar, Allāh).[1] An adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one who submits [to God]".[2][3] The word Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. There are between 1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the second-largest religion in the world, after Christianity.[4]

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad, God's final prophet, through the angel Gabriel, and regard the Qur'an and the Sunnah (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.[5] They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. Islamic tradition holds that Jews and Christians distorted the revelations God gave to these prophets by either altering the text, introducing a false interpretation, or both.[6]

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam, which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.[7] In addition to the Five Pillars, Islamic law (sharia) has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like dietary laws and banking to warfare and welfare.[8]Template:Islam Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the Sunni (85%) and Shi'a (15%). The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Islam is the predominant religion in Africa and the Middle East, as well as in major parts of Asia. Large communities are also found in China, the Balkan Peninsula in Eastern Europe and Russia. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world, such as Western Europe. About 20% of Muslims live in Arab countries,[9] 30% in the Indian subcontinent and 15.6% in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country by population.[10]

Etymology and meaning

For a more detailed treatment, see S-L-M.

The word Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m, and is derived from the Arabic verb Aslama, which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshipping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word is given a number of meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[11] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[12] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[13] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence); where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[14]

Articles of faith

For more detailed treatments, see Aqidah and Iman.

The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".[15] Also, there are other beliefs that differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called divine decree,[16] while the Shi'a version is called divine justice. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of Imamah, or the political and spiritual leadership of the Imams.[17]

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.[18] In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine revelation—either directly from God or through angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[19] Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",[20] and the Qur'an states that the proper name Muslim was given by Abraham.[21]

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in Arabia in the early 7th century.[22] Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[6]

God

For a more detailed treatment, see God in Islam.
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Islam's fundamental theological concept is tawhīd—the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is Allāh; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words al- (the) and ʾilāh (deity, masculine form), meaning "the god" (al-ilāh), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic Alāhā.[23] The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, tawhīd is expressed in the shahadah (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that Jesus was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, Jesus was just a man and not the son of God;[24] God is described in a chapter (sura) of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."[25]

Qur'an

For more detailed treatments, see Islamic holy books and Qur'an.
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File:FirstSurahKoran.jpg
The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central religious text of Islam.[26] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph. From textual evidence Islamic studies scholars find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.[27]

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[28] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[29] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[30]

The word Qur'an means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[31]

Angels

For a more detailed treatment, see Angels in Islam.

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in perfect obedience.[32] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"[33]

Muhammad

For a more detailed treatment, see Muhammad.

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of prophets—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.[34] For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[35]

File:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg
The Masjid al-Nabawi ("Mosque of the Prophet") in Madina is the site of Muhammad's tomb.

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[36] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the Arabian peninsula.[37]

In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[38]

Resurrection and judgment

For a more detailed treatment, see Qiyama.

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of Islamic scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.[39]

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, usury and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (jannah) as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (ridwān).[40] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[41]

Predestination

For more detailed treatments, see Predestination in Islam and Adalah.

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"[42] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[43]

The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (Adalah). This doctrine, originally developed by the Mu'tazila, stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.[44]

Duties and practices

Five Pillars

For a more detailed treatment, see Five Pillars of Islam.

File:Arabic Plaque, Great Mosque, Xian.jpg
Islam's basic creed (shahadah) written on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China
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Rituals of the Hajj (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the Kaaba in Mecca.

The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.[45] They are:

  • The shahadah, which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the shahadah to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[46]
  • Salah, or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called Adhan (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[47]
  • Zakat, or alms-giving. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a khums tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.[48]
  • Sawm, or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[49]
  • The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina. The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.[50]

In addition to the khums tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf, the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is Nahi-Anil-Munkar, the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.[51]

Law

For more detailed treatments, see Sharia and Fiqh.

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[52]

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[53]

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[54]

Religion and state

Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini.[55]

Etiquette and diet

For more detailed treatments, see Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws.

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[56]

Jihad

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Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "sixth pillar of Islam" by a minority of Muslim authorities.[57] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.[58] Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.[59][60] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[61] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[62]

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Islamic state, the ultimate purpose of which is to universalize Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or states which refuse to submit to the authority of Islam.[63][64] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[65]

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[64] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD.[66]

History

For more detailed treatments, see Muslim history and Spread of Islam.

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the Islamic world. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an, an Islamic empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the Middle Ages, but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the Ottomans and Mughals fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century new religious and political movements and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.[67]

Rise of the caliphate and Islamic civil war (632–750)

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Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[68]

File:Age of Caliphs.png
The territory of the Caliphate in 750

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[69]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[70]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[71] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul} in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[72] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[73]

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;[74] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[75] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[76]

Golden Age (750–1258)

For a more detailed treatment, see Islamic Golden Age.
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Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.[77] During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[2]

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[78] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[79] Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.[80]

The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[81] In the medieval period, a few Arab philosophers like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.[82]

Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion

For more detailed treatments, see Crusades and Reconquista.
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Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, bringing the Muslim world into conflict with Christendom. Initially successful in their goal of taking the Holy land, and establishing the Crusader states, Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin; who recaptured Jerusalem during the Second Crusade.[83] In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran in Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250[84] and in alliance with the Golden Horde were able to halt the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia and Islam was temporarily replaced by Buddhism as the official religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

Turkish, Iranian and Indian empires (1030–1918)

The Seljuk Turks conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the de facto rulers of the caliphate. They captured Anatolia by defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous Turkic dynasties. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman empire (named after Osman I) emerged from among these "Ghazi emirates" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, which succumbed shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, cannonry.[85]

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[86] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.[87]

File:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg
The Taj Mahal is a mausoleum located in Agra, India, that was built under Mughal rule[88]

In the early 16th century, the Shi'i Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[89] After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.[90] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal empire (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in South Asia, but by the early-18th century the Maratha empire became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th century the British empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,[91], and at the end of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 18th century the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[92]

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[93][94]

In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times (1918–present)

Template:See

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.[95] During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[96] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[97] The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[98]

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the Taliban), revolutionary movements replaced secular regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda engage in terrorism to further their goals. In contrast, Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[99]

Modern critique of Islam includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on apostates. Critics like Ibn Warraq question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage antisemitic remarks by Muslim theologians.[100] Such claims are disputed by Muslim writers like Fazlur Rahman Malik,[101] Syed Ameer Ali,[102] Ahmed Deedat,[103] and Yusuf Estes.[104] Others like Daniel Pipes and Martin Kramer focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.[105] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.[106] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.[107]

Pascal Bruckner and Paul Berman on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.[108]</blockquote>

Community

For a more detailed treatment, see Muslim world.

Demographics

See also: Islam by country and Demographics of Islam
File:World Muslim Population Map.png
Muslim percentage of population by country

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are Sunni and 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. South Asia and Southeast Asia contain the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents each.[109] According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China.[110] In the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[109] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries.[111]

Mosques

For a more detailed treatment, see Mosque.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[112]

Family life

Template:Seealso The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[113] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[114]

File:Snowy Mosque.JPG
Canterbury Mosque, New Zealand; June 2006. Built over 1984-85 it was the world's southern-most mosque until 1999.

A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[115] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[116]

Calendar

For a more detailed treatment, see Islamic calendar.

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.[117]

The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.

Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[118]

Other religions

For a more detailed treatment, see Islam and other religions.

File:Dome of the rock distance.jpg
A view of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a holy site in both Islam and Judaism that has been a source of controversy
File:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg
The Al-Aqsa Mosque congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.

According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by Adam.[119] At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.[120] In this view, Abraham, Moses, Hebrew prophets, and Jesus were all Prophets in Islam, but their message and the texts of the Torah and the Gospels were corrupted by Jews and Christians. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.[121] The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."[122] Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.[123]

Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as dhimmis ("protected peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (jizya) to the Islamic state and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their inferiority.[124] The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus[125], but not to atheists or agnostics.[126] Those who live in non-Muslim lands (dar al-harb) are known as harbis, and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ahl al-ahd. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ahl al-amān. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (ahl al-hudna) are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.[127][128] Apostasy is prohibited, and is punishable by death.[129][130]

The Alevi, Yazidi, Druze, Ahmadiyya, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[131]

Denominations

For a more detailed treatment, see Divisions of Islam.

File:MuslimDistribution2.jpg
Map showing distribution of Shia and Sunni Muslims in Africa, Asia and Europe.

Islam consists of a number of religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the Sunni and the Shi'a, with Sufism generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other Islamic sects.[132]

Sunni

For a more detailed treatment, see Sunni.
Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent Salafi movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.[133]

Shi'a

For a more detailed treatment, see Shi'a.

See also: Succession to Muhammad
File:Divisions of Islam.png
Divisions of Islam

The Shi'a, who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ismah, meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.[134][135] Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[136] Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya), while the others are the Ismaili, the Seveners, and the Zaidiyyah.[137]

Sufism

For a more detailed treatment, see Sufism.

Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[138] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified religious innovation. Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.[139]

Others

The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.[140]

See also

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Further: [[:Category:Islam|Category:Islam]]

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References

Notes

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  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Template:Cite encyclopedia
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  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 See:
    • Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
    • Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
    • Template:Cite encyclopedia
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  9. ↑ See:
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  10. ↑ See these figures
  11. ↑ Template:Cite quran, Template:Cite quran, Template:Cite quran
  12. ↑ Template:Cite quran, Template:Cite quran, Template:Cite quran
  13. ↑ See:
  14. ↑ Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 192
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  16. ↑ Template:Muslim
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    • Farah (2003), p.109
    • Momen (1987), p.176
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  25. ↑ See:
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  57. ↑ Esposito (2003), p.93
  58. ↑ Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18
  59. ↑ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18
  60. ↑ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
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  62. ↑ See:
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  63. ↑ Firestone (1999) p.17
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Template:Cite encyclopedia
  65. ↑ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118
  66. ↑ cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
  67. ↑ See:
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    • Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56
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    • Hourani (2003), p.22
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32
    • Madelung (1996), p.43
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  71. ↑ Waines (2003) p.46
  72. ↑ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
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  74. ↑ Hawting (2000), p.4
  75. ↑ Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83
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  77. ↑ See:
  78. ↑ Lapidus (2002), p.86
  79. ↑ See:
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  80. ↑ See:
  81. ↑ Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41
  82. ↑ See:
    • Novak (February 1999)
    • Sahas (1997), pp.76–80
  83. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
  84. ↑ See:
  85. ↑ See
  86. ↑ Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
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  88. ↑ Esposito (2004), p.65
  89. ↑ See:
  90. ↑ Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press
  91. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
  92. ↑ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.572
    • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
  93. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
  94. ↑ [1] New Turkey
  95. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835
  96. ↑ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
  97. ↑ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708
  98. ↑ Organization of the Islamic Conference
  99. ↑ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
  100. ↑ See:
  101. ↑ For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
  102. ↑ For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
  103. ↑ Westerlund (2003)
  104. ↑ Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu. "Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images", Advance, University of Connecticut, 2003-11-17. 
  105. ↑ Bernstein, Richard. "Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-05-14. 
  106. ↑ See:
    • Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
    • Watt (1974), p.231
  107. ↑ Ernst (2004), p.11
  108. ↑ Template:Cite magazine
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 Number of Muslim by country. nationmaster.com. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
  110. ↑ International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau). U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2006). Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
  111. ↑ See: Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents. Adherents.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
  112. ↑ See:
  113. ↑ "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam
  114. ↑
    • Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
    • Esposito (1998) p. 79
  115. ↑ *"Talak". Encyclopaedia of Islam
  116. ↑
  117. ↑ See:
  118. ↑ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws
  119. ↑ Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16
  120. ↑ Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19
  121. ↑ Friedmann (2003), p. 18
  122. ↑ Friedmann (2003), p. 35
  123. ↑ See:
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
    • Lewis (1984), p. 39
  124. ↑ See:
    • Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
    • Friedmann (2003), p. 37;
  125. ↑ Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46
  126. ↑ Lewis (2001), p.273
  127. ↑ Friedmann (2003), p. 55
  128. ↑ "Aman", Encyclopaedia of Islam
  129. ↑ A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.
  130. ↑ "Murtadd", Encyclopedia of Islam
  131. ↑ Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs"
  132. ↑ See:
    • Esposito (2002b), p.2
    • Sunni and Shia Islam. Country Studies. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-01-09.
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  134. ↑ See
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    • Nasr (1994), p.466
  137. ↑ See:
  138. ↑ Trimingham (1998), p.1
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    • Afghanistan: A Country Study. Country Studies 150. U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
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Books and journals

  • Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410. 

Adil, Hajjah Amina; Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2002). Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118. 

Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World, 2.00, I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860642579. 

Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710. 

Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986. 

Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0813819464. 

Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2614-0. 

Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4. 

Esposito, John; John Obert Voll (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7. 

Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344. 

Esposito, John; Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1. 

Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. 978-0195107999. 

Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195168860. 

Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3. 

Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. 

Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd Rev Upd, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195182668. 

Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 5th, Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812018530. 

Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances, 7th, Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0764122266. 

Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800. 

Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994. 

Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. Template:OCLC. 

Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Lawrence Davidson (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East, 8th, Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757. 

Griffith, Ruth Marie; Barbara Dianne Savage (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709. 

Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240735. 

Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1553698425. 

Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. 

Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. 

Hourani, Albert (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178. 

Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918. 

Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727. 

Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191. 

Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813304533. 

Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114. 

Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333. 

Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0. 

Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2. 

Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807. 

Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East, 2nd, Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182. 

Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East, Reprint, Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055. 

Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852. 

Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960. 

Malik, Jamal; John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087. 

Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593. 

  • Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion 3 (2). 

Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300035315. 

Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7. 

  • Novak, David (February 1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things. 

Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. 

  • Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures (Brill Academic Publishers) 16 (3). ISBN 9004103147. 
  • Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 

Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2. 

Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5. 

Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd, Routledge. ISBN 978-0415217811. 

Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-92-80606-8. 

Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004034952. 

Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150. 

  • Seibert, Robert F. (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research 36 (1). 

Sells, Michael Anthony; Emran Qureshi (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670. 

Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156492. 

Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1. 

Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. 

Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; R. Campbell (translator) (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6. 

Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964. 

Tolan, John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press. 

Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582. 

Tritton, Arthur S. [1930] (1970). The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5. 

Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X. 

Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415174589. 

Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064. 

Warraq, Ibn (2000). The Quest for Historical Muhammad. Prometheus. ISBN 978-1573927871. 

Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus. ISBN 1-59102-068-9. 

Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85-224254-X. 

Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, New, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. 

Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661. 

Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-79076-7. 

Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331. 

Encyclopedias

Further reading

Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation, 1st, Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076. 

Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240727. 

Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran, 1st, Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799. 

Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408. 

Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132. 

Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0812692174. 

Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611. 

Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833. 

Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440710. 

Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345. 

Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices, New Edition, Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216274. 

Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam, 2nd, University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2. 

  • Tausch, Arno (2008, with Christian Bischof, and Karl Mueller), "Muslim Calvinism”, internal security and the Lisbon process in Europe Amsterdam : Rozenberg Publishers
Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0720610383. 

External links

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