Changes

The nationalists met at the 1786 [[Annapolis Convention]], which originated from a series of commercial meetings among the northeastern states. Some historians see it as an unsuccessful experiment in reforming the [[Articles of Confederation]]. Others emphasize that the nationalists at Annapolis, especially [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York and [[James Madison]] of Virginia, used it to call for the Philadelphia convention. The Annapolis experience led Madison and the other nationalists to consider designing a new federal political system with a powerful central government. The report of the Conference, sent to Congress, requested "the appointment of Commissioners, to meet at Philadelphia on the second Monday in May next."

The nationalists met at the 1786 [[Annapolis Convention]], which originated from a series of commercial meetings among the northeastern states. Some historians see it as an unsuccessful experiment in reforming the [[Articles of Confederation]]. Others emphasize that the nationalists at Annapolis, especially [[Alexander Hamilton]] of New York and [[James Madison]] of Virginia, used it to call for the Philadelphia convention. The Annapolis experience led Madison and the other nationalists to consider designing a new federal political system with a powerful central government. The report of the Conference, sent to Congress, requested "the appointment of Commissioners, to meet at Philadelphia on the second Monday in May next."

Leading nationalists, led by Washington, Hamilton, and [[Benjamin Franklin]] called for a new constitution. The old Congress (based in New York) agreed and called the states to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia in May of 1787. This convention, over the course of the summer, drew up a new constitution that was submitted to Congress and eventually to state ratification conventions for approval. James Madison, who arrived in Philadelphia early to map out an initial plan for debate, is called "the father of the Constitution." <ref>Morris (1987) pp 267-97.</ref> Madison took copious notes of the debates, which he refused to release until the last delegate was dead; they were published posthumously. <ref>Farrand (1911) p xv. The implication is that Madison did not want commentators using his notes to discover what the delegates meant by various provisions.</ref>

Leading nationalists, led by Washington, Hamilton, and [[Benjamin Franklin]] called for a new constitution. The old Congress (based in New York) agreed and called the states to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia in May of 1787. This convention, over the course of the summer, drew up a new constitution that was submitted to Congress and eventually to state ratification conventions for approval. James Madison, who arrived in Philadelphia early to map out an initial plan for debate, is called "the father of the Constitution." <ref>Morris (1987) pp 267-97.</ref> Madison took copious notes of the debates, which he refused to release until the last delegate was dead; they were published posthumously.<ref>Farrand (1911) p xv. The implication is that Madison did not want commentators using his notes to discover what the delegates meant by various provisions.</ref>

Political parties did not exist in 1787 and were not mentioned in the Constitution. In each state, factions competed for control of the legislatures and the governorships. Because the states controlled their representatives to Congress, a geographically based factionalism pitting the different states against one other existed in the Continental Congress. The factions in the different states had little in common; politics did not cross state lines and no coalitions were formed that crossed state lines. Many nationalists feared Congress was too weak. <ref>McDonald, (1965), pp 17-32 on Congress; pp 33-132 covers each state.</ref>

Political parties did not exist in 1787 and were not mentioned in the Constitution. In each state, factions competed for control of the legislatures and the governorships. Because the states controlled their representatives to Congress, a geographically based factionalism pitting the different states against one other existed in the Continental Congress. The factions in the different states had little in common; politics did not cross state lines and no coalitions were formed that crossed state lines. Many nationalists feared Congress was too weak.<ref>McDonald, (1965), pp 17-32 on Congress; pp 33-132 covers each state.</ref>

==Drafting the Constitution==

==Drafting the Constitution==

===Slavery===

===Slavery===

The Constitution was written at a time when all the northern states were moving toward emancipation, and most leading southerners doubted the long-term viability of the institution. The Constitution did not use the word "slavery", but it allowed for the abolition of slave importation from abroad after 20 years,<ref> In 1808 Congress made the importation of a slave from abroad a serious crime. Britain at the same time outlawed the international slave trade; a small trickle of slaves were smuggled into the U.S. Edward Channing, ''The Jeffersonian System, 1801-1811'' (1906 100-110.</ref> for the return of fugitive slaves, and for counting 3/5 of the slave population (and all of the free population) in computing representation in the House and electoral college. That was a compromise between counting all the slaves (which would favor the South) or none (which would favor the North). Benjamin Franklin helped broker the compromises.<ref> Morgan (2001); Finkelman (1987)</ref>

The Constitution was written at a time when all the northern states were moving toward emancipation, and most leading southerners doubted the long-term viability of the institution. The Constitution did not use the word "slavery", but it allowed for the abolition of slave importation from abroad after 20 years,<ref>In 1808 Congress made the importation of a slave from abroad a serious crime. Britain at the same time outlawed the international slave trade; a small trickle of slaves were smuggled into the U.S. Edward Channing, ''The Jeffersonian System, 1801-1811'' (1906 100-110.</ref> for the return of fugitive slaves, and for counting 3/5 of the slave population (and all of the free population) in computing representation in the House and electoral college. That was a compromise between counting all the slaves (which would favor the South) or none (which would favor the North). Benjamin Franklin helped broker the compromises.<ref>Morgan (2001); Finkelman (1987)</ref>

===Finance===

===Finance===

==Ratification==

==Ratification==

An intense debate on ratification pitted the '''"Federalists"''' against the '''"Anti-Federalists,"''' with the former gaining the upper hand. The Anti-Federalists were deeply concerned about the theoretical danger of a strong central government (like that of Britain) that some day could ruin [[Republicanism]] and usurp the rights of the states.  Madison and Hamilton (joined by [[John Jay]]) countered with a series of newspaper essays, the [[Federalist Papers]], that helped New York to ratify.  All the states ratified but as a condition, the Anti-Federalists insisted on a bill of rights  which would meet most of their serious objections. The supporters of the Constitution agreed (and the [[Bill of Rights]] became part of the Constitution in 1791).  The Anti-Federalist element had never comprised an organized group, and had no national leaders. By 1791 its issues were moot; some left politics, and most joined the Jeffersonian Republican Party by 1796. <ref>Morris ''The Forging of the Union: 1781-1789'' pp 298-322. </ref>

An intense debate on ratification pitted the '''"Federalists"''' against the '''"Anti-Federalists,"''' with the former gaining the upper hand. The Anti-Federalists were deeply concerned about the theoretical danger of a strong central government (like that of Britain) that some day could ruin [[Republicanism]] and usurp the rights of the states.  Madison and Hamilton (joined by [[John Jay]]) countered with a series of newspaper essays, the [[Federalist Papers]], that helped New York to ratify.  All the states ratified but as a condition, the Anti-Federalists insisted on a bill of rights  which would meet most of their serious objections. The supporters of the Constitution agreed (and the [[Bill of Rights]] became part of the Constitution in 1791).  The Anti-Federalist element had never comprised an organized group, and had no national leaders. By 1791 its issues were moot; some left politics, and most joined the Jeffersonian Republican Party by 1796.<ref>Morris ''The Forging of the Union: 1781-1789'' pp 298-322.</ref>

The pro-Constitution forces, led by Washington and Hamilton, formed a new government in 1789, with Washington as president. Madison became a leader in the House, where he sponsored the Bill of Rights. Under pressure from his district he resisted moves toward a strong central government, especially those promoted by Hamilton.

The pro-Constitution forces, led by Washington and Hamilton, formed a new government in 1789, with Washington as president. Madison became a leader in the House, where he sponsored the Bill of Rights. Under pressure from his district he resisted moves toward a strong central government, especially those promoted by Hamilton.

==Conspiracy==

==Conspiracy==

Various conspiracy theories have been proposed about the Constitution, but all have been rejected by conservative scholars. For example the Progressive historians (led by [[Charles Beard]]), as well as Marxists, have portrayed the Constitution as a conspiracy of powerful merchants to enrich themselves further and to stop the growth of democracy.  That was false, as is the notion that the Constitutional Convention was somehow illegal or in violation of the laws. (The Convention was called by the existing Congress, which unanimously sent the finished document to the states for ratification.)<ref> For a good review and refutation of conspiracy theories, see [http://www.americanrevolution.org/grassman.html Dr. Curtis E. Grassman, "Conspiracy and the Making of the Constitution" online] which concludes, "The various conspiracy theses have not been very convincing. The historical proof or evidence offered by this school of historians has almost always been found wanting upon further investigation."</ref>

Various conspiracy theories have been proposed about the Constitution, but all have been rejected by conservative scholars. For example the Progressive historians (led by [[Charles Beard]]), as well as Marxists, have portrayed the Constitution as a conspiracy of powerful merchants to enrich themselves further and to stop the growth of democracy.  That was false, as is the notion that the Constitutional Convention was somehow illegal or in violation of the laws. (The Convention was called by the existing Congress, which unanimously sent the finished document to the states for ratification.)<ref>For a good review and refutation of conspiracy theories, see [http://www.americanrevolution.org/grassman.html Dr. Curtis E. Grassman, "Conspiracy and the Making of the Constitution" online] which concludes, "The various conspiracy theses have not been very convincing. The historical proof or evidence offered by this school of historians has almost always been found wanting upon further investigation."</ref>

==Statistics==

==Statistics==

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Alexander, John K. ''The Selling of the Constitutional Convention: A History of News Coverage'' (1990)

* Alexander, John K. ''The Selling of the Constitutional Convention: A History of News Coverage'' (1990)

* Banning, Lance. "Republican Ideology and the Triumph of the Constitution, 1789 to 1793." ''The William and Mary Quarterly,''  3rd Ser., Vol. 31, No. 2 (Apr., 1974), pp. 167-188 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(197404)3%3A31%3A2%3C167%3ARIATTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]

* Banning, Lance. "Republican Ideology and the Triumph of the Constitution, 1789 to 1793." ''The William and Mary Quarterly,''  3rd Ser., Vol. 31, No. 2 (Apr., 1974), pp.&nbsp;167–188 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043-5597(197404)3%3A31%3A2%3C167%3ARIATTO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]

* Beeman, Richard R. ''Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution'' (2009), major scholarly study

* Beeman, Richard R. ''Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution'' (2009), major scholarly study

* Beeman, Richard R. et al eds. ''Beyond Confederation: origins of the constitution and American national identity'' (1987)

* Beeman, Richard R. et al eds. ''Beyond Confederation: origins of the constitution and American national identity'' (1987)

* Rutland, Robert Allen. ''The Birth of the Bill of Rights, 1776–1791'' (1955)

* Rutland, Robert Allen. ''The Birth of the Bill of Rights, 1776–1791'' (1955)

* Slonim, Shlomo.  "Securing States' Interests at the 1787 Constitutional Convention: a Reassessment.''  ''Studies in American Political Development 2000 14(1): 1-19. ISSN: 0898-588X  Fulltext: at Cambridge journals

* Slonim, Shlomo.  "Securing States' Interests at the 1787 Constitutional Convention: a Reassessment.''  ''Studies in American Political Development 2000 14(1): 1-19. ISSN: 0898-588X  Fulltext: at Cambridge journals

* Vile, John R. ''The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding'' ABC-CLIO, 2005). 2 vols. 1083pp; 400 entries; ISBN: 1-85109-669-8

* Vile, John R. ''The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding'' ABC-CLIO, 2005). 2 vols. 1083pp; 400 entries; ISBN 1-85109-669-8

* Warren, Charles. ''The Making of the Constitution'' (1928); by a leading conservative historian

* Warren, Charles. ''The Making of the Constitution'' (1928); by a leading conservative historian

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[[Category:United States Constitution]]

[[Category:United States Constitution]]