Changes

Last week we finished the "ancient world."  It was followed immediately by a period of hundreds of years when there was no significant civilization in Western Europe.

Last week we finished the "ancient world."  It was followed immediately by a period of hundreds of years when there was no significant civilization in Western Europe.

This class we discuss the growing "Christendom" in Eastern Europe, including Charlemagne and the Carolingian Court, and we learn about the rise of Islam in the Middle East, which also spread to Europe, Africa and Asia.

This class we discuss the growing "Christendom" in Western Europe, including Charlemagne and the Carolingian Court, and we learn about the rise of Islam in the Middle East, which also spread to Europe, Africa and Asia.

We also learn about the historical emergence of "chivalry" in this lecture.

We also learn about the historical emergence of "chivalry" in this lecture.

==Introduction to the Middle Ages==

==Introduction to the Middle Ages==

The "[[Middle Ages]]" is the period from the fall of the western [[Roman empire]] to the intellectual and cultural revival known as the "[[Renaissance]]".  As a rough approximation, the dates of the Middle Ages are from A.D. 500 to 1500, even though the Renaissance actually began hundreds of years earlier than 1500 and Rome fell before 500.  

The "[[Middle Ages]]" is the period between the fall of the western [[Roman empire]] and the "[[Renaissance]]", when there was an intellectual and cultural revival.  As a rough approximation, '''the dates of the Middle Ages are from A.D. 500 to 1500''', even though the Renaissance actually began hundreds of years earlier than 1500 and Rome fell before 500.  "Medieval" is the adjective for "Middle Ages":  for example, "medieval times" means the Middle Ages.

Both the beginning and end of the Middle Ages occurred in what is now [[Italy]].  The "Middle Ages" can be a disparaging term to describe a bridge in time between the worthwhile ancient world that ended in A.D. 500, and the worthwhile Renaissance that arose on the other side of the break, in A.D. 1500.  Perhaps the term "Middle Ages" is analogous to the term "teenager", which you might notice is not always used in a complimentary way by adults!  Italian humanists (non-religious intellectuals) wanted to criticize the thousand years that separated the Roman empire from the Renaissance, because it was a period of monastic life and quiet Christian spiritual growth, and hence the name "Middle Ages."   

Both the beginning and end of the Middle Ages occurred in what is now [[Italy]].  The "Middle Ages" can be a disparaging term to describe a bridge in time between the worthwhile ancient world that ended in A.D. 500, and the worthwhile Renaissance that arose on the other side of the break, in A.D. 1500.  Perhaps the term "Middle Ages" is analogous to the term "teenager", which you might notice is not always used in a complimentary way by adults!  Italian humanists (non-religious intellectuals) wanted to criticize the thousand years that separated the Roman empire from the Renaissance, because it was a period of monastic life and quiet Christian spiritual growth, and hence the name "Middle Ages."   

Christianity and its new network of churches helped filled the void.  Also, a new method developed for protecting private property and encouraging farming on a local level rather than through a centralized empire:  [[feudalism]].  It arose independently in western Europe and [[Japan]].

Christianity and its new network of churches helped filled the void.  Also, a new method developed for protecting private property and encouraging farming on a local level rather than through a centralized empire:  [[feudalism]].  It arose independently in western Europe and [[Japan]].

Under the decentralized government during the Middle Ages, a huge church-state network called "Christendom" held influence over all of Europe.  Christendom consisted of a religious hierarchy known as the [[sacerdotium]] and a secular (non-religious) hierarchy known as the [[imperium]].  These corresponded to man's spiritual needs and his worldly or temporal needs.  In western Europe, the pope of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] ruled over the religious side and an emperor ruled over the secular side, but they were constantly cooperating or arguing with each other.  Emperors tried to control church officials and vice-versa.  The Church even had its own armies and cities, and a powerful pope named [[Innocent III]] even asserted the right to resolve disputes between kings.  The pope would [[excommunicate]] (kick out of the Church) kings to show his disapproval, and at times even attempted to remove kings from power.  This all makes for interesting reading and debate.

Under the decentralized government during the Middle Ages, a huge church-state network called "Christendom" held influence over all of Europe.  Christendom consisted of a religious hierarchy known as the [[sacerdotium]], and a secular (non-religious) hierarchy known as the [[imperium]].  These corresponded to man's spiritual needs and his worldly or temporal needs.  In Western Europe, the pope of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] ruled over the religious side and an emperor ruled over the secular side, and they were often arguing with each other.  Emperors tried to control church officials and vice-versa.  The Church even had its own armies and cities, and a powerful pope named [[Innocent III]] even asserted the right to resolve disputes between kings.  The pope would [[excommunicate]] (kick out of the Church) kings to show his disapproval, and at times even attempted to remove kings from power.  This all makes for interesting reading and debate.

   

   

There were other threats to peace.  Foreigners from Asia known as "[[Mongols]]" were vicious warriors who seemed invincible.  And there was terrible disease:  the [[Bubonic Plague]] was probably the worst disease in all of history, killing a large percentage of the European population.

There were other threats to peace.  Foreigners from Asia known as "[[Mongols]]" were vicious warriors who seemed invincible.  And there was terrible disease:  the [[Bubonic Plague]] was probably the worst disease in all of history, killing a large percentage of the European population.

There is only one major world religion that developed after [[Jesus Christ]]: Islam.<ref>The small Indian religion of Sikhism, which broke off from Hinduism to defend against Islam, also developed after Christianity.</ref>  But it has gained more adherents and conquered more countries in the past 1300 years than any other non-Christian religion.  The religion of Islam is one of the most important aspects of World History, and its importance is growing.

There is only one major world religion that developed after [[Jesus Christ]]: Islam.<ref>The small Indian religion of Sikhism, which broke off from Hinduism to defend against Islam, also developed after Christianity.</ref>  But it has gained more adherents and conquered more countries in the past 1300 years than any other non-Christian religion.  The religion of Islam is one of the most important aspects of World History, and its importance is growing.

Its founder was [[Muhammad]] (570-632 A.D.), a successful merchant in [[Mecca]]. The word Islam means "submission to God." According to Islamic (Muslim) beliefs, Muhammad founded Islam based on revelations from the Angel Gabriel, whom many Christians recognize as having the same name as the angel who appeared to [[Mary the mother of Jesus|Mary]], the mother of Jesus.  (The angel Gabriel is also mentioned in the [[Old Testament]], such as in the [[Book of Daniel]].)  In fact, Islam treats Mary, Jesus and the Old Testament prophets as very holy people, and Islam considers [[Abraham]] as their father just as the [[Jewish]] people do.  Muslims considered Christians and Jews "people of the book," and allowed them special rights in the early days of Islam, a policy that has changed since then.

The word "Islam" means "submission to God."  Its founder was [[Muhammad]] (570-632 A.D.), a successful merchant in [[Mecca]].  According to Islamic (Muslim) beliefs, Muhammad founded Islam based on revelations from the Angel Gabriel, whom many Christians recognize as having the same name as the angel who appeared to [[Mary the mother of Jesus|Mary]], the mother of Jesus.  (The angel Gabriel is also mentioned in the [[Old Testament]], such as in the [[Book of Daniel]].)  In fact, Islam treats Mary, Jesus and the Old Testament prophets as very holy people, and Muslims consider [[Abraham]] to have been their father just as [[Jewish]] people do.  Muslims considered Christians and Jews "people of the book," and allowed them special rights in the early days of Islam, a policy of cooperation that has changed since then.

Muhammad preached a new [[monotheistic]] religion based on only one god, Allah, at a time when Mecca was still [[polytheistic]].  Located in Mecca was the "Ka'aba", a temple which housed the "Black Stone," an important religious relic of the [[Arab]]s' polytheistic religion.  Businessmen in Mecca — who made a substantial profit off of the swarms of [[pilgrims]] who came to see the holy shrine — feared that they might lose customers from Muhammad's preaching and they drove him out in A.D. 622 in what is known as the "hijra", or withdrawal.  Muhammad's flight (to the town of [[Medina]]) marks the first year of the Islamic calendar.

Muhammad preached a new [[monotheistic]] religion based on only one god, Allah, at a time when Mecca was still [[polytheistic]].  Located in Mecca was the "Ka'aba", a temple which housed the "Black Stone," an important religious relic of the [[Arab]]s' polytheistic religion.  Businessmen in Mecca — who made a substantial profit off of the swarms of [[pilgrims]] who came to see the holy shrine — feared that they might lose customers from Muhammad's preaching and they drove him out in A.D. 622 in what is known as the "hijra", or withdrawal.  Muhammad's flight (to the town of [[Medina]]) marks the first year of the Islamic calendar.

Muhammad formed a community for this new religion, called the "umma".  Their activities included helping the poor.  Muhammed's teachings were recorded in the [[Qur'an]] or Koran, which is the bible of Islam.  Muhammad then returned to Mecca in A.D. 630 with his followers, and conquered it by force.  By 632, Islam controlled nearly all of [[Arabia]].  It has quickly spread and expanded both in popularity and power ever since, at times growing faster than even Christianity.  Islam had more adherents than any other religion in many parts of the Middle East, Arabia, North Africa and Central Asia.  [[Pakistan]] is Muslim, while [[India]] is [[Hindu]], causing those two countries to be in perpetual conflict with each other.  At one point Islam became the most dominant religion in [[Spain]], but that country was later retaken by [[Catholicism]].

Muhammad formed a community for this new religion, called the "umma".  Their activities included helping the poor.  Muhammed's teachings were recorded in the [[Qur'an]] or Koran, which is the bible of Islam.  Muhammad then returned to Mecca in A.D. 630 with his followers, and conquered it by force.  By 632, Islam controlled nearly all of [[Arabia]].  It has quickly spread and expanded both in popularity and power ever since, at times growing faster than even Christianity.  Islam had more adherents than any other religion in many parts of the Middle East, Arabia, North Africa and Central Asia.  [[Pakistan]] is Muslim, while [[India]] is [[Hindu]], causing those two countries to be in perpetual conflict with each other.  At one point Islam became the most dominant religion in [[Spain]], but that country was later retaken by [[Catholicism]].

Islam is different from Christianity in being having a military/political viewpoint in addition to a set of religious beliefs.  Islam's religious beliefs are set forth in the "Five Pillars of Islam" and moral commands set forth in the Qur'an (Koran).  The Five Pillars of Islam are these:

Islam is different from Christianity in having a military/political viewpoint in addition to a set of religious beliefs.  Islam's religious beliefs are set forth in the "Five Pillars of Islam" and moral commands set forth in the Qur'an (Koran).  The Five Pillars of Islam are these:

1.  Submission to one god, Allah, whose prophet was Muhammad.  This is simple and powerful:  '''''submit'''''.  It is easy for everyone to understand quickly.

1.  '''Submission''' is to one god, Allah, whose prophet was Muhammad.  This is simple and powerful:  '''''submit'''''.  It is easy for everyone to understand quickly.

   

   

2.  Prayer to Allah five times a day while facing Mecca.  This is more than many Christians pray.

2.  '''Prayer''' is to Allah five times a day while facing Mecca.  This is more than many Christians pray.

3.  Fasting for the entire month of [[Ramadan]], whereby no food is eaten during daylight hours in that month.  Fasting strengthens the body and soul.

3.  '''Fasting''' is expected for the entire month of [[Ramadan]], whereby no food is eaten during daylight hours in that month.  Fasting strengthens the body and soul.

4.  Almsgiving:  Muslims must donate to the poor.

4.  Almsgiving:  Muslims must donate to the poor.

5.  The [[Hajj]] or pilgrimage at least once during a Muslim's lifetime to Mecca, where Muhammad himself made a hajj from A.D. 629 to 632.

5.  The [[Hajj]] or pilgrimage '''is made''' at least once during a Muslim's lifetime to Mecca, where Muhammad himself made a hajj from A.D. 629 to 632.

Islam also has a social law known as the "[[shariah]]" to dictate how people should relate to each other.  The shariah can impose harsh punishments pursuant to the Qur'an for wrongful conduct.  Islam strictly prohibits alcohol, drugs, [[gambling]], [[prostitution]], [[homosexuality]], [[pornography]] and other harmful activity.  [[Abortion]] is illegal under Islamic law.   

Islam also has a social law known as the "[[shariah]]" to dictate how people should relate to each other.  The shariah can impose harsh punishments pursuant to the Qur'an for wrongful conduct.  Islam strictly prohibits alcohol, drugs, [[gambling]], [[prostitution]], [[homosexuality]], [[pornography]] and other harmful activity.  [[Abortion]] is illegal under Islamic law.   

The shariah also requires women to wear veils to conceal their beauty in public, a practice known as "[[hijab]]".  American women reporters in [[Iran]] today wear veils when appearing on television to provide us with live news.  Women are expected to obey their husbands, and under Islamic law are considered the property of their husbands and other male members of their household.  Men are allowed to take up to four wives in some Muslim countries.  In the earliest days of Islam (before the stricter [[Shiite]] branch of Islam took power), women were not required to wear veils.

The shariah requires women to wear veils to conceal their beauty in public, a practice known as "[[hijab]]".  American women reporters in [[Iran]] today wear veils when appearing on television to provide us with live news.  Women are expected to obey their husbands, and under Islamic law are considered the property of their husbands and other male members of their household.  Men are allowed to take up to four wives in some Muslim countries.  In the earliest days of Islam (before the stricter [[Shiite]] branch of Islam took power), women were not required to wear veils.

A newspaper article described how three-quarters of the 900 taxi drivers at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport are [[Somalis]], many of them Muslim.  As Muslims, they do not believe in allowing alcohol in their cab.  About three times each day, a Muslim cab driver refuses a customer because he notices that the customer is carrying alcohol.  "It is a religious issue," said one Muslim cabdriver.  "I cannot force anybody to change their belief, but not in my cab.  I don't want the guilt.  I just want to be an innocent person."  A flight-attendant described how she mentioned to a cabdriver to be careful with her suitcase because it contained wine.  The driver then refused her service, and told other cabdrivers.  Four other cabdrivers then refused her service.  "What's going to be next?", she said.  "Do I have to cover my head?"  But a Muslim cabdriver responded, "According to Muslim law, a Muslim driver cannot question a person's faith or beliefs,” he said. "It's not a matter of the person, it's what the person is carrying."

A newspaper article described how three-quarters of the 900 taxi drivers at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport are [[Somalis]], many of them Muslim.  As Muslims, they do not believe in allowing alcohol in their cab.  About three times each day, a Muslim cab driver refuses a customer because he notices that the customer is carrying alcohol.  "It is a religious issue," said one Muslim cabdriver.  "I cannot force anybody to change their belief, but not in my cab.  I don't want the guilt.  I just want to be an innocent person."  A flight-attendant described how she mentioned to a cabdriver to be careful with her suitcase because it contained wine.  The driver then refused her service, and told other cabdrivers.  Four other cabdrivers then refused her service.  "What's going to be next?", she said.  "Do I have to cover my head?"  But a Muslim cabdriver responded, "According to Muslim law, a Muslim driver cannot question a person's faith or beliefs," he said. "It's not a matter of the person, it's what the person is carrying."

   

   

The Islamic religion adheres to only the Arabic version of the Qur'an as the only authentic version, and translations are not accepted.  This caused the spread of the Arabic language throughout the Middle East and into Asia, and increased the influence of the new religion.  This also prevents any translators from changing the meaning of the Qur'an.

The Islamic religion adheres to the '''Arabic''' version of the Qur'an as the only authentic version, and translations are not accepted.  This caused the spread of the Arabic language throughout the Middle East and into Asia, and increased the influence of the new religion.  This also prevents any translators from changing the meaning of the Qur'an.

Muhammad's first successor, or "[[caliph]]", was his friend [[Abu-Bakr]].  He kept together the Islamic faith, but around A.D. 660 a schism occurred in Islam between the [[Sunnis]], the largest group, and the stricter Shiites (or Shi'ites or Shia).  They could not agree on who should be the successor to Muhammad, and the Shiites chose [[Ali]], a son-in-law of Muhammad, as caliph.  The Sunnis — made up of the members of the Umayyad clan — triumphed in this first period of Islamic history.  During the reign of a Sunni king named [[Umar]], Islam grew at an astounding rate.  At the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] (A.D. 636 AD), 40,000 Muslims defeated an army of 120,000 Byzantines.   

Muhammad's first successor, or "[[caliph]]", was his friend [[Abu-Bakr]].  He kept together the Islamic faith, but around A.D. 660 a schism occurred in Islam between the [[Sunnis]], the largest group, and the stricter Shiites (or Shi'ites or Shia).  They could not agree on who should be the successor to Muhammad, and the Shiites chose [[Ali]], a son-in-law of Muhammad, as caliph.  The Sunnis — made up of the members of the Umayyad clan — triumphed in this first period of Islamic history.  During the reign of a Sunni king named [[Umar]], Islam grew at an astounding rate.  At the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] (A.D. 636 AD), 40,000 Muslims defeated an army of 120,000 Byzantines.   

In 750 A.D., the Abbasid clan — whose members supported the Shiite sect — defeated the Umayyads.  The rule of Abassid caliph "Harun al-Rashid" is known as the "Golden Age of Islam."

In 750 A.D., the Abbasid clan — whose members supported the Shiite sect — defeated the Umayyads.  The rule of Abassid caliph "Harun al-Rashid" is known as the "Golden Age of Islam."

To this day, the Sunnis and Shiites clash with each other, with the Sunnis considered to be more moderate and friendlier to western countries like the United States and the Shiites viewed as more extreme and hostile to western countries.  The Sunnis are Arab and have ruled countries such as [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Iraq]], while the Shiites have majorities in Iraq and Iran.   

To this day, the Sunnis and Shiites clash with each other, with the Sunnis considered to be more moderate and friendlier to western countries like the United States, and the Shiites viewed as more extreme and hostile to western countries.  The Sunnis are Arab and have ruled countries such as [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Iraq]], while the Shiites have majorities in Iraq and Iran.   

The recent effort to form a [[democracy]] in Iraq has given the Shiites new power in one of the largest Muslim countries, causing concern among the Sunnis.  The Shiites have religious practices that include beating their chests, slashing their forwards and weeping.  The Sunnis are more reserved in their ceremonies.  [[Jordan]]'s King [[Abdullah II]] declared in December 2005 that he feared that Iran sought to create "a Shiite crescent" in the Middle East consisting of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon.  Iran denied this.

The recent effort to form a [[democracy]] in Iraq has given the Shiites new power in one of the largest Muslim countries, causing concern among the Sunnis.  The Shiites have religious practices that include beating their chests, slashing their forwards and weeping.  The Sunnis are more reserved in their ceremonies.  [[Jordan]]'s King [[Abdullah II]] declared in December 2005 that he feared that Iran sought to create "a Shiite crescent" in the Middle East consisting of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon.  Iran denied this.

Islam is more forceful than other major religions in obtaining conversion and discouraging other faiths, and Islam entails government and military policies, unlike Christianity.  Islam is hostile to missionary work by other religions, such as Christianity.  Islamic countries may also favor the Islamic faith by not requiring a poll tax by Muslims but requiring practitioners of other religions to pay a tax.  Critics of Islam say that it encourages violence against "infidels" or non-believers.  Occasionally there are news reports of brutal killings of Christian girls or imprisonment and death sentences for Christian missionaries in Muslim countries.  In [[Afghanistan]], a Muslim was sentenced to death for converting to Christianity.

Islam is more forceful than other major religions in converting people and Islam is hostile to missionary work by other religions, such as Christianity.  Islam encompasses government and military policies, unlike Christianity.  Islamic governments may favor Muslims by not requiring them to pay a poll tax, while requiring practitioners of other religions to pay the tax.  Critics of Islam say that it encourages violence against "infidels" or non-believers.  Occasionally there are news reports of brutal killings of Christian girls or imprisonment and death sentences for Christian missionaries in Muslim countries.  In [[Afghanistan]], after the United States invaded and established control, a Muslim was sentenced to death for converting to Christianity, through publicity in the United States led to his release.

Muslim hostility and violence towards [[Jewish]] people is even worse.  Biblical scholars trace the conflict to the rival sons of Abraham, [[Ishmael]] and [[Isaac]], as discussed in our Lecture One (see Mesopotamia section).  In A.D. 691 Sunni Muslims built the [[Dome of the Rock]], a [[mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]], on the same site where Jews believe God asked Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, "Mount Moriah."  It is probably the most controversial religious site in the world today.  Some extreme Muslim groups in the Middle East are determined to destroy [[Israel]], and acts of terrorism to kill Jewish people are common there.  But while Muslim terrorist acts against defenseless Jewish civilians are common, there are almost never similar acts of terrorist by Jewish people against innocent Muslim civilians.

Muslim hostility and violence towards [[Jewish]] people is even worse.  Biblical scholars trace the conflict to the rival sons of Abraham, [[Ishmael]] and [[Isaac]], as discussed in our Lecture One (see Mesopotamia section).  In A.D. 691 Sunni Muslims built the [[Dome of the Rock]], a [[mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]], on the same site where Jews believe God asked Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, "Mount Moriah."  It is probably the most controversial religious site in the world today.  Some extreme Muslim groups in the Middle East are determined to destroy [[Israel]], and acts of terrorism to kill Jewish people are common there.  But while Muslim terrorist acts against defenseless Jewish civilians are common, there are almost never similar acts of terrorist by Jewish people against innocent Muslim civilians.

Perhaps the most controversial aspect of Islam is the "[[jihad]]", which is defined in western dictionaries as any Muslim holy war against infidels.  But another meaning of a "jihad" in Islam is an internal spiritual struggle within each person for control over himself and his complete allegiance to Allah.  Muslim scholars describe jihad as being waged through the heart, the tongue, the hand, and the sword.  Through jihad, Muslims believe they are guaranteed entrance into heaven.

Perhaps the most controversial aspect of Islam is the "[[jihad]]", which is defined in western dictionaries as any Muslim holy war against infidels.  But another meaning of a "jihad" in Islam is an internal spiritual struggle within each person for control over himself, in order to establish his complete allegiance to Allah.  Muslim scholars describe jihad as being waged through the heart, the tongue, the hand, and the sword.  Through jihad, Muslims believe they are guaranteed entrance into heaven.

Islam came very close to conquering western Europe and forcibly converting Christians to Muslims in the A.D. 700s.  By then Spain was already under Muslim control by the [[Moors]], and Muslim soldiers were advancing into Gaul (modern [[France]]).  For twenty years they defeated Christian armies until the pivotal [[Battle of Tours]] (France) in 732, where massive Muslim forces met a determined Christian opponent named [[Charles Martel]] (the "Hammer"), who led the Germanic peoples known as "[[Franks]]" to a decisive defeat of the Muslims.  Historians say that all of Europe might have become Muslim if not for this single victory.  In the course of this battle, the Muslim leader [[Emir Abd er Rahman]] was killed, and the Muslims retreated back to Spain.  Muslims today refer to this key battle as "The Court of Martyrs" in Arabic.

Islam came very close to conquering western Europe and forcibly converting Christians to Islam in the A.D. 700s.  By then Spain was already under Muslim control by the [[Moors]], and Muslim soldiers were advancing into Gaul (modern [[France]]).  For twenty years they defeated Christian armies until the pivotal [[Battle of Tours]] (France) in 732, where massive Muslim forces met a determined Christian opponent named [[Charles Martel]] (the "Hammer"), who led the Germanic peoples known as "[[Franks]]" to a decisive defeat of the Muslims.  Historians say that all of Europe might have become Muslim if not for this single victory.  In the course of this battle, the Muslim leader [[Emir Abd er Rahman]] was killed, and the Muslims retreated back to Spain.  Muslims today refer to this key battle as "The Court of Martyrs" in Arabic.

The most famous Muslim in the western world has been [[Muhammad Ali]], a champion boxer in the 1960s and 1970s who was the most-recognized athlete at that time, similar to Michael Jordan 5-10 years ago and Tiger Woods today.  Muhammad Ali converted to Islam and then refused to be drafted for the [[Vietnam War]] because the Islamic faith did not consider it to be a "holy war."  Judges rejected his claim and he was jailed, until the [[United States Supreme Court]] held that this view qualified Muhammad Ali for the "conscientious objector" exemption from the draft.  He was released from jail and then won back his boxing championship.

The most famous Muslim in the western world has been [[Muhammad Ali]], a champion boxer in the 1960s and 1970s who was the most-recognized athlete at that time, similar to Michael Jordan 5 or 10 years ago and Tiger Woods today.  Muhammad Ali converted to Islam and then refused to be drafted for the [[Vietnam War]] because he did not consider it to be a "holy war."  Judges rejected his claim and he was jailed, until the [[United States Supreme Court]] held that this view qualified Muhammad Ali for the "conscientious objector" exemption from the draft.  He was released from jail and then won back his boxing championship.

In November 2006, [[Keith Ellison]] became the first Muslim ever elected to the [[United States Congress]].  He's from [[Minnesota]], where there is a strong Muslim neighborhood.  Ellison then chose to take his oath his office on the Koran rather than the Bible.  The [[Detroit]], Michigan area has the largest settlement of Muslims in America.  In France the growing Muslim population is very influential and Christianity has greatly declined there.   

In November 2006, [[Keith Ellison]] became the first Muslim ever elected to the [[United States Congress]].  He's from [[Minnesota]], where there is a strong Muslim neighborhood.  Ellison then chose to take his oath his office on the Koran (Qur'an) rather than the Bible.  The [[Detroit]], Michigan area has the largest settlement of Muslims in America.  In France the growing Muslim population is very influential and Christianity has greatly declined there.   

===Contributions of Islam to Society===

===Contributions of Islam to Society===

Muslim countries helped facilitate trade between Asia and Europe.  Muslims also transmitted Indian mathematical discoveries to western Europe and Muslims helped established universities when other parts of western Europe was declining.  Islamic learning included the works of [[Ibn Sina]] (980-1037 A.D.) who wrote "Canon of the Medicine," a book describing many infectious diseases and their causes, during the Golden Age of Islam.  Islamic architecture, as represented in mosques, is striking in design.  Islamic religion strictly prohibits artists from depicting the human form, which contributes to the distinguishing geometric characteristics of Muslim architecture.  [[Omar Khayyam]] lived in Persia, was tutored by a sheik, was probably Islamic, and was accomplished in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and especially literature, writing a famous collection of poems entitled the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam.

Muslim countries helped facilitate trade between Asia and Europe.  Muslims also transmitted Indian mathematical discoveries to western Europe and Muslims helped established universities when other parts of western Europe was declining.  Islamic learning included the works of [[Ibn Sina]] (980-1037 A.D.) who wrote "Canon of the Medicine," a book describing many infectious diseases and their causes, during the Golden Age of Islam.  Islamic architecture, as represented in mosques, is striking in design.  Islamic religion strictly prohibits artists from depicting the human form, which contributes to the distinguishing geometric characteristics of Muslim architecture.  [[Omar Khayyam]] lived in Persia, was tutored by a sheik, was probably Islamic, and was accomplished in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and especially literature, writing a famous collection of poems entitled the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam.

The Arabic language is closely related to [[Hebrew]] as both belong to the Semitic group of languages. It spread with Islam to be the language of nearly 200 million persons today, and has given many words to the English language.  Examples include "[[algebra]]", "cipher", "coffee" and "sugar".

The Arabic language is closely related to [[Hebrew]], as both belong to the Semitic group of languages. It spread with Islam to be the language of nearly 200 million persons today, and has given many words to the English language.  Examples include "[[algebra]]", "cipher", "coffee" and "sugar".

===Islam Today by Country===

===Islam Today by Country===

|97%

|97%

|-

|-

|West Bank

|West Bank (on Jordan River by Israel)

|84%

|84%

|-

|-

|-

|-

|France

|France

|7.5%

|7.5% (one out of every 13)

|-

|-

|Netherlands

|Netherlands

|6%

|6% (one out of every 17)

|-

|-

|England

|England

|2.7%

|2.7% (one of out every 37)

|-

|-

|U.S.

|U.S.

|1.4%

|1.4% (one of out every 71)

|}

|}

==Russians, Slavs and Turks==

==Russians, Slavs and Turks==

[[Russia]] today is by far the largest country in the world by land mass, having almost twice the area of the second-largest country ([[Canada]]).  Russia currently has the world's ninth largest population, ranking behind number one [[China]], number two [[India]], number three [[United States]], and several other Asian countries and [[Brazil]].  Russia is 15% Muslim today.

[[Russia]] today is by far the largest country in the world in land mass, having almost twice the area of the second-largest country ([[Canada]]).  Russia currently has the world's ninth largest population, ranking behind number one [[China]], number two [[India]], number three [[United States]], and several other Asian countries and [[Brazil]].  Russia is 15% Muslim today.

Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were easy victims for nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]].

Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were easy victims for nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]] (recall our encounter last week with "Attila the Hun").

Beginning in the A.D. 800s, the [[Vikings]] conducted trade from [[Constantinople]] and the [[Black Sea]].  The Slavs established an important trade city known as [[Kiev]], which exists to this day, and named the territory "Rus", from which the name Russian comes.

Beginning in the A.D. 800s, the [[Vikings]] conducted trade from [[Constantinople]] and the [[Black Sea]].  The Slavs established an important trade city known as [[Kiev]], which exists to this day, and named the territory "Rus", from which the name Russian comes.

A group of Turks known as the [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuks]] had converted to become [[Sunni Muslims]], and they gained control of trade routes connecting Asia and Europe.  In A.D. 1055, the Seljuks captured [[Baghdad]] from the Persians, and killed the [[Shiite]] officials there.  The Seljuk Turks gained in power and defeated the Byzantine empire in 1071 at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].  They soon controlled [[Anatolia]].  But the Turks did not adopt the Arabic language.  Instead, they adopted the culture and language of Persia, referred to their rulers as "shah", and almost obliterated the Arabic language from Persia.  Seljuk ruler [[Malik Shah]] (1055-1092) supported Persian artists and culture.  They were not great engineers, and the Persian irrigation and canal system collapsed.  Disagreements between the Sunnis and Shiites emerged, and the Seljuk power declined after the death of Malik Shah.

A group of Turks known as the [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuks]] had converted to become [[Sunni Muslims]], and they gained control of trade routes connecting Asia and Europe.  In A.D. 1055, the Seljuks captured [[Baghdad]] from the Persians, and killed the [[Shiite]] officials there.  The Seljuk Turks gained in power and defeated the Byzantine empire in 1071 at the [[Battle of Manzikert]].  They soon controlled [[Anatolia]].  But the Turks did not adopt the Arabic language.  Instead, they adopted the culture and language of Persia, referred to their rulers as "shah", and almost obliterated the Arabic language from Persia.  Seljuk ruler [[Malik Shah]] (1055-1092) supported Persian artists and culture.  They were not great engineers, and the Persian irrigation and canal system collapsed.  Disagreements between the Sunnis and Shiites emerged, and the Seljuk power declined after the death of Malik Shah.

It was the occupation of [[Jerusalem]] by the Sunni Seljuk Turks that later led to the Crusades to recapture Jerusalem for Christianity, which we will discuss in the next class.  Today Turkey is 99% Muslim, but it is controlled by the military, which prohibits the wearing of head coverings by women in schools and government buildings.  About 3 million Muslims in Germany are immigrants from Turkey.

It was the occupation of [[Jerusalem]] by the Sunni Seljuk Turks that later led to the Crusades to recapture Jerusalem for Christianity, which we will discuss in the next class.  Today Turkey is 99% Muslim, but it is controlled by the military, which prohibits the wearing of head coverings by women in schools and government buildings.  About 3 million Muslims in Germany are immigrants from Turkey today.

==Western Europe in the early Middle Ages==

==Western Europe in the early Middle Ages==

From Gaul a leader emerged named Charles Martel (popularly known as "Charles the Hammer").  He ruled the Franks from A.D. 719-741 and, as his nickname suggests, he expanded he territory.  He was the one who saved Christian Europe by crushing the Muslim invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732 (see above).   

From Gaul a leader emerged named Charles Martel (popularly known as "Charles the Hammer").  He ruled the Franks from A.D. 719-741 and, as his nickname suggests, he expanded he territory.  He was the one who saved Christian Europe by crushing the Muslim invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732 (see above).   

Charles' son had the humorous name "Pepin the Short."  Despite the name, he was also a brilliant leader of the Franks.  Pepin conquered territory around Rome and then gave it as a gift to the pope.  The pope returned the favor with the "Donation of Pepin," laying the foundation for the Papal States, which were territories under the control of the pope.  Charles Martel and Pepin's family were the Carolingian dynasty that ruled the Franks from 751 all the way to 987.

Charles' son had the humorous name "Pepin the Short."  Despite the name, he was also a brilliant leader of the Franks.  Pepin conquered territory around Rome and then gave it as a gift to the pope.  The pope returned the favor with the "Donation of Pepin," laying the foundation for the Papal States, which were territories under the control of the pope.  Charles Martel and Pepin's family were the Carolingian (pronounced kar-uh-LIN-ee-uhn) dynasty that ruled the Franks from 751 all the way to 987.

Pepin's son (and Charles Martel's grandson) was Charlemagne (A.D. 742-814), who became the most famous member of the family.  The name "Charlemagne" (pronounced SHAR-luh-MAIN) is from the Latin "Carolus Magnum," which means "Charles the Great."  He conquered the territory once held by the Roman empire in his attempt to reestablish it; he educated children in palace schools; and he created the "missi dominici" (king's officials) to watch over his empire.  His revival of education became known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a brief period of progress or light in what is otherwise criticized as the Dark Ages.   

Pepin's son (and Charles Martel's grandson) was Charlemagne (A.D. 742-814), who became the most famous member of the family.  The name "Charlemagne" (pronounced SHAR-luh-MAIN) is from the Latin "Carolus Magnum," which means "Charles the Great."  He conquered the territory once held by the Roman empire in his attempt to reestablish it; he educated children in palace schools; and he created the "missi dominici" (king's officials) to watch over his empire.  His revival of education became known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a brief period of progress or light in what is otherwise criticized as the Dark Ages.