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Difference between revisions of "Atheism and health"

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In regards to '''atheism and mental and physical health''', there is considerable amount of scientific evidence that suggest that [[theism]] is more conducive to mental and physical health than [[atheism]].<ref>http://www.mayoclinic.org/news2001-rst/921.html</ref><ref>http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2003/A/20037338.html</ref> The prestigious [[Mayo Clinic]] reported the following on December 11, 2001:
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[[Image:Mayo-clinic-gondaoverview.jpg|thumb|right|201px|The prestigious [[Mayo Clinic]] found that that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life and other health outcomes.<ref name="Mayo">Mueller, Dr. Paul S. et al. (December 2001). [https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62799-7/abstract "Religious involvement, spirituality, and medicine: implications for clinical practice"]. ''Mayo Clinic Proceedings'' vol. 76:12, pp. 1225-1235.  Retrieved from Mayo Clinic Proceedings website on July 20, 2014.</ref>]]
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Concerning '''atheism and health''', there is considerable amount of scientific evidence that suggest that [[atheism]] is less conducive to mental and physical health than [[theism]] (belief in the existence of [[God]]/gods).<ref>Multiple references:
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*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3671693/ Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications] by Harold G. Koenig, ISRN Psychiatry. 2012; 2012: 278730.
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*Mueller, Dr. Paul S. et al. (December 2001). [http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2811%2962799-7/fulltext "Religious involvement, spirituality, and medicine: implications for clinical practice"]. ''Mayo Clinic Proceedings'' vol. 76:12, pp. 1225-1235.  Retrieved from Mayo Clinic Proceedings website on July 20, 2014.
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*[http://www.spiritualityandhealth.duke.edu/index.php/research/research-library "Research library"].  Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
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*McCullough, Michael E. et al. (2000).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/rel_mort_meta.pdf "Religious involvement and mortality: a meta-analytic review"].  ''Health Psychology''. vol. 19:3. pp. 211-222.  Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.
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*Casey, Professor Patricia (April 3, 2009).  [http://www.ionainstitute.ie/pdfs/Religion-Exec_summary.pdf "The psycho-social benefits of religious practise" [executive summary&#93;].  Iona Institute for Religion and Society [Ireland] website.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
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*McCullough, Michael E. and Willoughby, Brian L. B. (2009).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/Relig_self_control_bulletin.pdf "Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: associations, explanations, and implications"]. ''Psychological Bulletin'', vol. 135: 1, pp. 69–93.  Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.
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*University of Colorado at Boulder (May 17, 1999).  [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/05/990517064323.htm "Research shows religion plays a major role in health, longevity"].  ScienceDaily.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
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*Dervic, Kanita, et al. (December 2004).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15569904 "Religious affiliation and suicide attempt" [abstract&#93;]. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', vol. 161:12, pp. 2303-8.  Abstract retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on July 24, 2014.
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*University of Warwick (December 2003).  [http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2003/A/20037338.html "Psychology researcher [Dr. Stephen Joseph&#93; says spiritual meaning of Christmas brings more happiness than materialism"].  Scienceblog.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.</ref>  
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The prestigious [[Mayo Clinic]] reported on December 11, 2001 concerning the [[Irreligion and recovery from illnesses|religious and recovery from illnesses]]:
 
{{cquote|In an article also published in this issue of Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Mayo Clinic researchers reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life and other health outcomes.
 
{{cquote|In an article also published in this issue of Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Mayo Clinic researchers reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life and other health outcomes.
  
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The authors report a majority of the nearly 350 studies of physical health and 850 studies of mental health that have used religious and spiritual variables have found that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes.<ref>http://www.mayoclinic.org/news2001-rst/921.html</ref>}}   
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The authors report a majority of the nearly 350 studies of physical health and 850 studies of mental health that have used religious and spiritual variables have found that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes.<ref name="Mayo"/>}}
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The [[Iona Institute]] reported concerning [[atheism and life expectancy]]: "A meta-analysis of all studies, both published and unpublished, relating to religious involvement and longevity was carried out in 2000. Forty-two studies were included, involving some 126,000 subjects. Active religious involvement increased the chance of living longer by some 29%, and participation in public religious practices, such as church attendance, increased the chance of living longer by 43%."<ref>Multiple references:
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*Casey, Professor Patricia (April 3, 2009).  [http://www.ionainstitute.ie/pdfs/Religion-Exec_summary.pdf "The psycho-social benefits of religious practise" [executive summary&#93;].  Iona Institute for Religion and Society [Ireland] website.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
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*McCullough, Michael E. et al. (2000).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/rel_mort_meta.pdf "Religious involvement and mortality: a meta-analytic review"].  ''Health Psychology''. vol. 19:3. pp. 211-222.  Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.</ref>
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In December 2003, the University of Warwick reported: "Dr. Stephen Joseph, from the University of Warwick, said: "Religious people seem to have a greater purpose in life, which is why they are happier. Looking at the research evidence, it seems that those who celebrate the Christian meaning of [[Christmas]] are on the whole likely to be happier."<ref>University of Warwick (December 2003).  [http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2003/A/20037338.html "Psychology researcher [Dr. Stephen Joseph&#93; says spiritual meaning of Christmas brings more happiness than materialism"].  Scienceblog.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.</ref>
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See also: [[Atheism and depression]] and [[Atheism and suicide]] and [[Atheism and alcoholism]]
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[[Duke University]] has established the Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health.<ref>[http://www.spiritualityandhealth.duke.edu/ Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health]  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.</ref> The Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health is based in the Center for Aging at Duke and gives opportunities for scholarly trans-disciplinary conversation and the development of collaborative research projects.<ref>[http://www.spiritualityandhealth.duke.edu/index.php/about-us "About us."]  The Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.</ref> In respect to the atheism and mental and physical health, the center offers many studies which suggest that [[theism]] is more beneficial than atheism.<ref>[http://www.spiritualityandhealth.duke.edu/index.php/research/research-library "Research library"].  Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.</ref>
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== Atheism, health and life expectancy  ==
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and life expectancy]]
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The journal article ''Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications'' published in the journal ''International Scholar Research Notes Psychiatry'' by Harold G. Koenig stated concerning religion/spirituality (R/S):
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{{cquote|The most impressive research on the relationship between R/S and physical health is in the area of mortality. The cumulative effect of R/S, if it has any benefits to physical health, ought to reveal itself in an effect on mortality. The research suggests it does. At least 121 studies have examined relationships between R/S and mortality. Most of these are prospective cohort studies, where baseline R/S is assessed as a predictor of mortality during the observation period, controlling for confounders. Of those studies, 82 (68%) found that greater R/S predicted significantly greater longevity (three at a trend level), whereas six studies (5%) reported shorter longevity. Considering the 63 methodologically most rigorous studies (quality ratings of 8 or higher), 47 (75%) found R/S predicting greater longevity (two at trend level) [548–566], whereas three (5%) reported shorter longevity [567–569]. Another systematic review [570] and two meta-analyses [571, 572] have confirmed this relationship between R/S and longer survival. The effects have been particularly strong for frequency of attendance at religious services in these three reviews. Survival among frequent attendees was increased on average by 37%, 43%, and 30% (mean effect being 37% across these reviews). An increased survival of 37% is highly significant and equivalent to the effects of cholesterol lowering drugs or exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction on survival [573].<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3671693/ ''Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications''], ''International Scholar Research Notes Psychiatry'' by Harold G. Koenig, 2012</ref>}}
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=== Atheism, sexuality and longevity ===
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and sexuality]] and [[Atheism and marriage]] and [[Atheist marriages]]
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Men who are satisfied with their sexual lives have greater longevity.<ref>[http://www.mensjournal.com/health-fitness/health/the-best-reason-to-have-sex-20121001 The Best Reason to Have Sex] by Philip Weiss, Men's Journal</ref>
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In 2011, ''The Daily Beast'' conceded in an article entitled ''Why Are Christians Having Better Sex Than the Rest of Us?'', "The devout are actually having better sex than the rest of us."<ref name="thedailybeast.com">[https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2008/11/25/the-christian-sexual-awakening.html Why Are Christians Having Better Sex Than the Rest of Us?] by Tucker Carlson, The Daily Beast, November 11, 25, 2008</ref>
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Research shows that among women, religious women (especially [[evangelicalism|evangelical]]/[[low church]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] women) are more sexually satisfied than irreligious women.<ref name="thedailybeast.com"/><ref>The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States By Edward O. Laumann, John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, Stuart Michaels, page 115</ref><ref>[http://blog.getrelationshiphelp.com/2009/07/christian-women-have-more-sexual-fun.html Christian Women Have More Sexual Fun], Relationship Center in Springfield Missouri</ref>
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Social science data also reports that Hispanic men are more sexually satisfied than other ethnic groups in the United States.<ref>The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States By Edward O. Laumann, John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, Stuart Michaels, page 114</ref>
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Hispanics are known for their religiosity. For example, in 2015, ''BloombergView'' reported concerning the United States: "According to a much-discussed 2012 report from the Pew Research Center on Religion and Public Life, only 3 percent of U.S. atheists and agnostics are black, 6 percent are Hispanic, and 4 percent are Asian. Some 82 percent are white. (The relevant figures for the population at large at the time of the survey were 66 percent white, 11 percent black, 15 percent Hispanic, 5 percent Asian.)"<ref>[http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-03-27/the-atheism-gap The Atheism Gap] By Stephen L. Carter, ''BloombergView'', Mar 27, 2015 4:26 PM EDT</ref> See also: [[Western atheism and race]]
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In the United States, the [[Republican Party]] has a large segment of religious conservatives and they are influential within the party.<ref>[https://www.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/182210/highly-religious-conservative-republicans.aspx How Many Highly Religious Conservative Republicans Are There?], Gallup Organization statistics</ref>  ABC News reported that "More Republicans Satisfied With Sex Lives Than [[Democrat]]s".<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/News/story?id=180291 More Republicans Satisfied With Sex Lives Than Democrats], ABC News</ref>
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For more information, please see: [[Atheism and sexuality]]
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== Atheism and mental health ==
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See: [[Atheism and mental illness]]
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=== Religion and mental health ===
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The abstract for the journal article ''Health and Well-Being Among the Non-religious: Atheists, Agnostics, and No Preference Compared with Religious Group Members'' published in the ''Journal of Religion and Health'' indicates: "On dimensions related to psychological well-being, atheists and agnostics tended to have worse outcomes than either those with religious affiliation or those with no religious preference."<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26743877 ''Health and Well-Being Among the Non-religious: Atheists, Agnostics, and No Preference Compared with Religious Group Members''] by Hayward RD, Krause N, Ironson G, Hill PC, Emmons R., ''Journal of Religion and Health'', 2016 Jun;55(3):1024-1037. doi: 10.1007/s10943-015-0179-2.</ref>
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[[File:Cerebellum.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Believing in God can help block anxiety and minimize stress, according to new University of Toronto research that shows distinct brain differences between believers and non-believers.<ref>[http://phys.org/news/2009-03-brain-differences-believers-non-believers.html Researchers find brain differences between believers and non-believers], Phys.org, March 4, 2009</ref> See: [[Atheism and anxiety]] ]]
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''Global News'' reported:
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{{Cquote|Children who are raised with [[religion|religious]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] beliefs tend to have better mental health into their adulthood, a new study from the [[Harvard]] T.H. Chan School of Public Health found.
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According to the study’s findings, people who attended weekly religious services or [[Prayer|prayed]] or [[Meditation|meditated]] daily in their childhood reported greater life satisfaction in their 20s. People who grew up in a religious household also reported fewer symptoms of depression and lower rates of [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder|post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref>[https://globalnews.ca/news/4468745/religion-children-mental-health/ Religion can help improve children’s mental health, new study finds], ''Global News'', 2018</ref>}}
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=== Atheists and negative emotions/thoughts ===
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and emotional problems]] and [[Atheism and social/interpersonal intelligence]] and  [[Atheism and negative emotions/thoughts]]
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[[Emotional intelligence]] "refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions."<ref>[http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/a/emotionalintell.htm Emotional intelligence]</ref> Research indicates that religiosity is positively associated with ability in emotional intelligence.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10943-016-0335-3 Divine Emotions: On the Link Between Emotional Intelligence and Religious Belief], ''Journal of Religion and Health'', December 2017, Volume 56, Issue 6, pp 1998–2009</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4733549/ THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE WITH RELIGIOUS COPING AND GENERAL HEALTH OF STUDENTS] by Masoumeh Bagheri Nesami, Amir Hossein Goudarzian, Houman Zarei, Pedram Esameili, Milad Dehghan Pour, and Hesam Mirani, ''Materia Sociomedica''. 2015 Dec; 27(6): 412–416. doi: 10.5455/msm.2015.27.412-416</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222857921_Religiosity_and_perceived_emotional_intelligence_among_Christians Religiosity and perceived emotional intelligence among Christians], Personality and Individual Differences 41(3):479-490 · August 2006, DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.01.016</ref> See also: [[Atheism and emotional problems]] and [[Atheism and social/interpersonal intelligence]] and  [[Atheism and negative emotions/thoughts]]
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==== Atheists and various anxieties ====
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and anxiety]]
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Atheists suffer from a variety of [[anxiety|anxieties]] that often the religiously devout do not suffer from or rarely suffer from (see: [[Atheism and anxiety]]).
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=== Secular leftists and mental illness ===
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See: [[Secular leftists and psychogenic illness]]
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=== Atheism and mental toughness ===
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See: [[Atheism and mental toughness]]
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== Brain research studies of atheists and believers in God  ==
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=== Atheism and the brain ===
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[[File:Human brain.png|right|thumb|200px|Brain researchers have conducted a number of studies focusing on the differences between atheists and the religious. See: [[Atheism and the brain]] ]]
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and the brain]]
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Brain researchers have conducted a number of studies focusing on the differences between atheists and the religious (See: [[Atheism and the brain]]).
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==== Religious individuals and thicker cerebral cortices ====
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According to the ''Journal of the American Medical Association - Psychiatry'',  people who place a high importance of religion in their lives have thicker cerebral cortices and may be better able to fight depression.<ref>[http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/12/31/study-reveals-what-religion-and-spirituality-might-be-doing-for-the-human-brain/ Study reveals what religion and spirituality may be doing for the brain]</ref><ref>[http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1792140 Neuroanatomical Correlates of Religiosity and SpiritualityA Study in Adults at High and Low Familial Risk for Depression], JAMA Psychiatry</ref> See: [[Atheism and depression]] and [[Atheism and suicide]]
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==== Atheists and dopamine levels in the brain ====
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''See also:'' [[Atheism and motivation]] and [[Atheism and amotivational syndrome]]
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According to ''Scientific American'': "Research also suggests that a religious brain exhibits higher levels of [[dopamine]], a hormone associated with increased attention and [[motivation]]."<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/askthebrains/ Ask the Brains, Scientific American, Dec 23, 2011]</ref> See also: [[Atheism and motivation]] and [[Atheism and amotivational syndrome]] and [[Atheism and the brain]]
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==== Religion/irreligion, regular prayer/meditation and larger frontal lobes ====
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*[[Religiousity and larger frontal lobes]]
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=== Atheism and autism ===
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See: [[Atheism and autism]]
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== Atheism, suicide and depression ==
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:''See main article: [[Atheism and suicide]] and [[Atheism and depression]]'' and [[Atheism and happiness]]
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Although there are recent studies relating to [[Atheism and suicide|atheism being a causal factor for suicide for some individuals]], an early proponent of atheism being a causal factor for [[suicide]] was the Reverend Dr. Robert S. MacArthur.<ref name="suicide">Multiple references:
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*Dervic, Kanita, et al. (December 2004).  [http://www.adherents.com/misc/religion_suicide.html "Religious affiliation and suicide attempt" [summary&#93;]. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', vol. 161:12, pp. 2303-8.  Summary retrieved from Adherents.com on July 25, 2014.  Website contains link to article at American Journal of Psychiatry website.
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*Dervic, Kanita, et al. (December 2004).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15569904 "Religious affiliation and suicide attempt" [abstract&#93;]. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', vol. 161:12, pp. 2303-8.  Abstract retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on July 24, 2014.
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*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9507E2DC1131E033A25754C1A96F9C94659ED7CF "Atheism a cause of suicide; Dr. MacArthur preaches on the sin and cowardice of self-destruction"] (September 17, 1894).  ''New York Times'', p. 2.  Retrieved from nytimes.com on July 24, 2014.</ref> In 1894, the ''[[New York Times]]'' stated the following in relation to atheism and suicide:
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{{cquote|Dr. Martin urged that a great cause of suicide was atheism. It was, he said, a remarkable fact that where atheism prevailed most, there suicides were most numerous. In <big><sup>[[Paris]]</sup></big>, a recent census showed one suicide to every 2,700 of the population. After the publication of Paine's "Age of Reason" suicides increased.<ref name="nytimes">[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9507E2DC1131E033A25754C1A96F9C94659ED7CF "Atheism a cause of suicide; Dr. MacArthur preaches on the sin and cowardice of self-destruction"] (September 17, 1894).  ''New York Times'', p. 2.  Retrieved from nytimes.com on July 24, 2014.</ref>}}
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[[Image:Desperation_man.jpg‎|thumb|right|200px|Pitzer College sociologist [[Phil Zuckerman]] stated concerning suicide rates: "this is the one indicator of societal health in which religious nations fare much better than secular nations."]]
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The same ''New York Times'' article quotes the Reverend Dr. MacArthur describing suicide in the following manner: "It is mean and not manly; it is dastardly and not daring. A man who involves his innocent wife and children in financial disaster and disgrace and takes his life and leaves them to bear the burden he was unwilling to bear, is a coward."<ref name="nytimes"/>
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[[Phil Zuckerman]] is a professor of [[sociology]] and secular studies at Pitzer College in Claremont, California (which was the first secular studies university department<ref>[https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/people/phil-zuckerman Phil Zuckerman], Berkley Center website</ref>). He specialization is in the sociology of [[secularity]]. 
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The website Adherents.com reported the following in respect to atheism and suicide:
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{{cquote|Pitzer College sociologist Phil Zuckerman compiled country-by-country survey, polling and census numbers relating to atheism, agnosticism, disbelief in God and people who state they are non-religious or have no religious preference. These data were published in the chapter titled "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005). In examining various indicators of societal health, Zuckerman concludes about suicide:
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"Concerning suicide rates, this is the one indicator of societal health in which religious nations fare much better than secular nations. According to the 2003 World Health Organization's report on international male suicides rates (which compared 100 countries), of the top ten nations with the highest male suicide rates, all but one (Sri Lanka) are strongly irreligious nations with high levels of atheism. It is interesting to note, however, that of the top remaining nine nations leading the world in male suicide rates, all are former Soviet/Communist nations, such as Belarus, Ukraine, and Latvia. Of the bottom ten nations with the lowest male suicide rates, all are highly religious nations with statistically insignificant levels of organic atheism."<ref>Dervic, Kanita, et al. (December 2004).  [http://www.adherents.com/misc/religion_suicide.html "Religious affiliation and suicide attempt" [summary&#93;]. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'', vol. 161:12, pp. 2303-8.  Summary retrieved from Adherents.com on July 25, 2014.  Website contains link to article at American Journal of Psychiatry website.</ref>}}
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Concerning [[atheism and depression]], a University of Michigan study involving 19,775 individuals found that religious people are less likely than atheists to suffer [[depression]] when they are lonely.<ref>[https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-6136603/Lonely-religious-people-depressed-God-friend.html Lonely religious people are less depressed than atheists because they see God as a friend replacement, study finds], ''Daily Mail'', 2018</ref> See also: [[Atheism and loneliness]]
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[[Australia]]n online opinion writer and lecturer in ethics and philosophy at several [[Melbourne]] [[theology|theological]] colleges, Bill Muehlenberg, in his essay "The Unbearable Heaviness of Being (in a World without God)" states the following:
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{{cquote|Announcing, and believing, that God is dead has consequences. And it is we who suffer the most for it. We cannot bear the whole universe on our shoulders. We were not meant to. We must let God be God. Only then can men be men. Only then can we find the way forward to be possible, and the burdens not insurmountable.<ref>Muehlenberg, Bill (May 26, 2008).  [http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2008/05/26/the-unbearable-heaviness-of-being-in-a-world-without-god/ "The unbearable heaviness of being (in a world without God)"].  CultureWatch.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>}}
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=== Ex-Christians, self-esteem and suicide ===
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''See also:'' [[Ex-Christians, self-esteem and suicide]] and [[Atheism and self-esteem]] and [[Ex-atheists]]
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There are preliminary studies indicating that individuals who reject [[Christianity]] in Western cultures have lower self-esteem than the Christian population.<ref>Multiple references:
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*Hinman, Joe (October 25, 2010).  [http://atheistwatch.blogspot.com/2010/10/rejection-of-christianity-and-self.html "'Rejection of Christianity and Self Esteem': a review of a study by Leslie J. Francis, et al."].  Atheistwatch.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015. 
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*Hinman, Joe (October 27, 2010).  [http://atheistwatch.blogspot.com/2010/10/atheists-and-self-esteem-part-2.html "Atheists and self esteem part 2"].  Atheistwatch.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref> There are studies indicating that lower self-esteem is associated with suicidality.<ref>Multiple references:
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*Thompson, Angus H. (November–December 2010).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21190929 "The suicidal process and self-esteem"].  ''Crisis'', vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 311-6.  Retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on May 23, 2015.
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*Villa-Manzano, A. I. (November–December 2009).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20602903 "[Risk factors found in suicide attempters&#93;" [abstract&#93;].  ''Revista Médica del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social'', vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 643-6.  Abstract retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>
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[[File:Richard Dawkins at UT Austin.jpg|alt=Richard Dawkins|thumbnail|200px|right|[[Richard Dawkins]] ]]
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[[Richard Dawkins]]' book "The God Delusion" along with a [[community college]] biology class, have been linked to the tragic suicide of Jesse Kilgore.<ref>Unruh, Bob (November 20, 2008).  [https://www.wnd.com/2008/11/81459/ "Dad links son's suicide to 'The God Delusion'"]. WorldNetDaily.  Retrieved on February 18, 2015.</ref> Kilgore had several discussions with friends and relatives in which he made it clear Dawkins' book had destroyed his belief in God. This loss of faith is considered the cause of his suicide which is not surprising given that there is evidence which suggest that [[Atheism and suicide|atheism can be a causal factor for suicide for some individuals]].<ref name="suicide"/>
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Jesse's father is quoted as saying "If my son was a professing [[homosexuality|homosexual]], and a professor challenged him to read [a book called] 'Preventing Homosexuality'… If my son was gay and [the book] made him feel bad, hopeless, and he killed himself, and that came out in the press, there would be an outcry. He would have been a victim of a hate crime and the professor would have been forced to undergo sensitivity training, and there may have even been a wrongful death lawsuit. But because he's a [[Christianity|Christian]], I don't even get a return telephone call."
 +
 
 +
Jesse's blog remained online after his death.<ref>Kilgore, Jesse (December 17, 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217235301/http://users.newblog.com/Jkrapture/?post_id=17727 [Archive of&#93; What Say You?]  Archive of NewBlog.com.  Retrieved from December 17, 2008 archive at Internet Archive on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
At the same time, there is a significant portion of the atheist population who suffer from excess self-esteem/[[pride]] issues (see: [[Causes of atheism]]).
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, gender and suicide ===
 +
 
 +
See also: [[Atheism, gender and suicide]] and  [[Atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women]] and [[Atheism and suicide]]
 +
 
 +
Survey data and website tracking data of prominent [[atheism|atheists]]' websites indicate that in the [[Western World]], atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women (see: [[Atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women]]).<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*Kosmin, Barry A., et al. (2008).  [https://web.archive.org/web/20110904110346/http://www.americanreligionsurvey-aris.org/reports/NONES_08.pdf "American nones:  Profile of the no religion population"].  American Religion Survey website [Trinity College, Hartford, CT].  Retrieved from September 4, 2011 archive at Internet Archive on May 23, 2015.
 +
*Britt, Robert Roy (February 28, 2009).  [http://www.livescience.com/culture/090227-religion-men-women.html "Women more religious than men"].  Live Science website.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
 
 +
''Science Daily'' reports:
 +
{{cquote|Many studies have identified a strong link between suicide and diagnosable mental illness, especially depression. So because women suffer from depression at a much higher rate than men, they would seem to be at higher risk for suicide. But women actually commit suicide about one-fourth as often as men.<ref>Washington University in St. Louis (November 12, 1998).  [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/11/981112075159.htm "Why women are less likely than men to commit suicide"].  ScienceDaily website.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, marriage and suicide ===
 +
 
 +
''See also:''  [[Atheism and marriageability]] and [[Atheism and suicide]] and [[Atheism, marriage and suicide]]
 +
 
 +
Christian apologist Michael Caputo wrote: "Recently the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life has published its mammoth study on Religion in America based on 35,000 interviews... According to the Pew Forum a whopping 37% of atheists never marry as opposed to 19% of the American population, 17% of Protestants and 17% of Catholics.<ref name="creation">Ammi, Ken (June 11, 2009).  [https://creation.com/atheism "Atheism"].  Creation Ministries International.  Retrieved on July 19, 2014.</ref> See: [[Atheism and marriage]]
 +
 
 +
According to the 2001 [[American Religious Identification Survey]] (ARIS) over 50% of all atheists and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] don’t get married.<ref>https://creation.com/atheism</ref>
 +
 
 +
According the website Marriage and Family Encyclopedia: "Marital status has a strong association with rates of completed suicide. Suicide rates are higher in the divorced and widowed than in single people, who in turn have higher suicide rates than married people. This protective effect of marriage on suicide is stronger for men than for women, although it is found for both men and women (Gove 1972)."<ref>cited in Ponzetti, James J., ed. (2003).  [http://family.jrank.org/pages/1659/Suicide-Marital-Status-Family.html#ixzz1RJRmwSPF "Suicide—marital status and the family"].  ''International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family'' (New York:  MacMillan), p. 1599.  Retrieved from JRank Marriage and Family Encyclopedia/Suicide on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism and European suicide in the 17th century ===
 +
Chandak Sengoopta, in a book review of Georges Minois's work ''History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture'' wrote:
 +
{{cquote|Suicide became a prominent issue in England from the turn of the seventeenth century. The number of suicides, it was reported, had risen alarmingly and in the preface to his 1733 work, The English Malady, physician George Cheyne declared that he had been spurred to write it "by the late Frequency and daily Encrease of wanton and uncommon self-murders" (p. 181). According to Cheyne, the spread of atheism as well as the gloomy, melancholy-inducing climate of England were responsible for the rise in suicides; while his explanations were not always accepted, virtually nobody seems to have doubted that England had become the world capital of suicides. As Minois explains, there undoubtedly was a rise in the rates of reported suicides but, as far as one can tell from the available data, it was a European rather than an exclusively English phenomenon.<ref>Sengoopta, Chandak (July 1999). [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=3213 "[Review of ''History of Suicide:  Voluntary Death in Western Culture'' by George Minois (1999)&#93;"].  H-Net Humanities and Social Sciences Online/H-Ideas.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, uncharitableness and depression ===
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and depression]] and [[Atheism, uncharitableness and depression]]
 +
 
 +
A number of studies have confirmed that there is an inverse relationship to doing volunteer work and depression.<ref>[http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/science-of-happiness/caring/caring-and-happiness-reviews/ Review of Key Studies on Caring/Volunteering]</ref> The [[Atheist Population|atheist population]] does less charitable works and volunteering [[per capita]] than the theist population (see: [[Atheism and uncharitableness]]).
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and alcoholism ==
 +
[[File:Europe pol 2004.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|According to the [[World Health Organization]]'s (WHO) regional office in [[Europe]], "The WHO European Region has the highest proportion in the world of total ill health and premature death due to alcohol.<ref name="Who">[http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/disease-prevention/alcohol-use/data-and-statistics "Data and statistics"] (September 2014 or bef.).  Health topics/Disease prevention/Alcohol use.  Retrieved from World Health Organization (WHO)/Regional office for Europe on May 23, 2015.</ref>]]
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and alcoholism]] and [[Atheism, alcoholism and personality disorders]] and [[Atheism and mental illness]]
 +
 
 +
At least 100 studies suggests religion has a positive effect on preventing alcohol-related problems, researchers Christopher Ellison, Jennifer Barrett and Benjamin Moulton noted in an article in the ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' on “Gender, Marital Status, and Alcohol Behavior: The Neglected Role of Religion.”<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-briggs/charlie-sheen-circus-and-_b_836934.html The Doubled-Edged Sword of Religion and Alcoholism]</ref>
 +
 
 +
Atheists and atheistic cultures often have significant problems with excess alcohol usage (For more information please see: [[Atheism and alcoholism]]).
 +
 
 +
=== Secular countries/regions and alcoholism ===
 +
 
 +
'''Secular Europe:'''
 +
 
 +
According to the [[World Health Organization]]'s (WHO) regional office in [[Europe]], "The WHO European Region has the highest proportion in the world of total ill health and premature death due to alcohol.<ref name="Who"/>
 +
 
 +
*[[Secular Europe and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Britain and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic France and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Germany and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Czech Republic and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Estonia and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Irreligious Finland and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Denmark and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Netherlands and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Sweden and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
 
 +
'''Australia:'''
 +
 
 +
An Australian National Council on Drugs (ANCD) report indicated that 20% of Australians drink at levels putting them at risk of lifetime harm.<ref>Mower, Jane (November 19, 2013).  [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-20/alcohol-to-blame-for-one-in-eight-deaths---report/5102594 "One in eight deaths of young Australians attributable to alcohol: National Council on Drugs report"].  Australian Broadcasting Corporation website/News.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
For more information, please see: [[Irreligious Australia and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
 
 +
[[File:Vodka bottle.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Alcoholism was a serious social problem in the former atheistic [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Pomerlau">Pomerlau, Joceline, et. al. (May–June 2008).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18245818 "Hazardous alcohol drinking in the former Soviet Union: A cross-sectional study of eight countries"]. ''Alcohol and Alcoholism'', vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 351-9.  Retrieved from PubMed.gov on May 23, 2015.</ref> Between 1940 and 1980, this [[atheist state]] had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.<ref name="Anderson">Anderson, Sandra C. and Hibbs, Valerie K. (October 1992). [http://isw.sagepub.com/content/35/4/441.extract "Alcoholism in the Soviet Union" [first page&#93;].  ''International Social Work'', vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 441-53 [fee or registration required for full article].  First page retrieved from Sage journals/International Social Work on May 23, 2015.</ref>]]
 +
'''Asian countries:'''
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic China and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[North Korea and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Nontheistic Thailand and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
 
 +
'''History of communism:'''
 +
 
 +
Alcoholism was a serious social problem in the former atheistic [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Pomerlau"/>  Between 1940 and 1980, this [[atheist state]] had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.<ref name="Anderson"/>
 +
 
 +
*[[Soviet Union and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Communist East Germany and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, alcoholism and anger ===
 +
 
 +
[[Atheism, alcoholism and anger]]
 +
 
 +
=== Irreligion, alcoholism and various generations in the United States ===
 +
 
 +
*[[Irreligion, generations in the United States and alcoholism]]
 +
<br />
 +
Recent generations in the United States:
 +
 
 +
*[[Irreligion, baby boom generation and alcoholism]]
 +
*[[Irreligion, Generation X and alcoholism]]
 +
*[[Irreligion, millenials and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
=== American Atheism, gender, race and alcoholism ===
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheist Americans, gender and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheist Americans, race and alcoholism]]
 +
 
 +
=== Binge drinking and brain damage ===
 +
 
 +
A 2012 study suggests that a habit of binge drink risks serious brain damage including increasing memory loss later in adulthood.<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*T, Buddy (November 28, 2014).  [http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/binge/a/aa000818a.htm "Binge drinking affects brain, memory:  Young brains more vulnerable than adults'"].  About.com/About health.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
 +
*[http://www.scripps.edu/newsandviews/e_20121022/koob.html "Study suggests binge drinking could cause significant brain impairment within months"] (October 22, 2012)  ''News and Views'' [online], vol. 12, iss. 33.  Retrieved from ''The Scripps Research Institute'' on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
Currently, there is a downward trend in intelligence scores in secular countries (see:  [[Intelligence trends in religious countries and secular countries]]).
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, binge drinking and suicide ===
 +
 
 +
Binge drinking is a potent risk factor for suicide.<ref>O'Connell, H. and Lawlor, B.A. (October–December 2005). "Recent alcohol intake and suicidality—a neuropsychological perspective".  ''Irish Journal of Medical Science'', vol. 174, no. 4., pp. 51-4</ref> Atheists have a [[Atheism and suicide|higher suicide rate]] than the general population.
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and smoking ==
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and smoking]]
 +
 
 +
[[Smoking]] is a causal factor for various cancers such as [[lung cancer]] and cancers of the esophagus, larynx, mouth, throat, kidney, bladder, liver, pancreas, stomach, cervix, colon, and rectum, as well as acute myeloid [[leukemia]].<ref>[https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/tobacco/cessation-fact-sheet Smoking cessation fact sheet], National Cancer Institute</ref><ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/cancer.html CDCTips From Former Smokers ®Diseases/Conditions Featured in the Campaign
 +
Smoking and Cancer], Centers For Disease Control and Prevention</ref><ref>[http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/causes-of-cancer/smoking-and-cancer/how-smoking-causes-cancer How smoking causes cancer], Cancer Research, UK</ref>  The irreligious are more likely to be smokers (See: [[Atheism and smoking]]).
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and illegal drug use and drug addition ==
 +
[[File:Powder meth foil small.jpg|thumbnail|175px|right|Studies indicate that religious individuals are less likely to engage in illegal drug use than atheists/nonreligious.<ref name="drugs">Multiple references:
 +
*Denison, Jim (October 9, 2013).  [http://www.christianpost.com/news/believers-consume-fewer-drugs-than-atheists-106266/ "Believers consume fewer drugs than atheists"].  Christian Post website/CP Opinion.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
 +
*Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Foerderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung [Swiss National Science Foundation] (October 3, 2013).  [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131003093041.htm "Believers consume fewer drugs than atheists"].  Science Daily website/Science News.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
 +
*Multiple references:
 +
**McCullough, Michael E. and Willoughby, Brian L. B. (January 2009).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/Relig_self_control_bulletin.pdf "Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: associations, explanations, and implications"] ''Psychological Bulletin'', vol. 135, no. 1, pp. 69-93.  Retrieved from University of Miami department of psychology website on September 10, 2014.
 +
**Alternate source of abstract: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19210054 "Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: associations, explanations, and implications" [abstract&#93;].  Retrieved from PubMed.gov on September 10, 2014.</ref> ]]
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and drug addiction]]
 +
 
 +
Studies indicate that religious individuals are less likely to engage in illegal drug use than atheists/nonreligious.<ref name="drugs"/>
 +
 
 +
According to ''Science Daily'': "Young [[Switzerland|Swiss]] men who say that they believe in [[God]] are less likely to smoke cigarettes or pot or take ecstasy pills than Swiss men of the same age group who describe themselves as atheists. Belief is a protective factor against addictive behaviour. This is the conclusion reached by a study funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation."<ref>Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Foerderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung [Swiss National Science Foundation] (October 3, 2013).  [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131003093041.htm "Believers consume fewer drugs than atheists"].  Science Daily website/Science News.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
== Atheism, panic attacks, stress, negative emotions, alcoholism and smoking ==
 +
 
 +
See also: [[Atheism, panic attacks, stress, negative emotions, alcoholism and smoking]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and sedentary lifestyles ==
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and sedentary lifestyles]] and [[Atheism and motivation]]
 +
[[File:Basketball.jpg|right|225px|thumbnail|Numerous studies report that athletes to be more religious than non-athletes.<ref>[http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/strength-religious-faith-athletes-and-nonathletes-two-ncaa-division-iii-institutions ''Strength of Religious Faith of Athletes and Nonathletes at Two NCAA Division III Institutions'']</ref> See also: [[Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism]] ]]
 +
 
 +
Sedentary lifestyles reduce life expectancy.<ref>[https://www.cookinglight.com/news/height-weight-lifespan-study-longevity Height and Weight May Determine How Long You Can Live—Especially If You're a Woman]</ref>
 +
 
 +
The journal article ''Spirituality and Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Latino
 +
Men and Women in Massachusetts'' which was published in the journal ''Ethnicity and Disease'' declared: "There is a significant negative relationship between spirituality and sedentary behavior."<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5245605/ Spirituality and Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Latino Men and Women in Massachusetts] by Valerie J. Silfee, Christina F. Haughton, Stephenie C. Lemon, Vilma Lora, and Milagros C. Rosal, ''Ethnicity and Disease''. 2017 Winter; 27(1): 3–10. Published online 2017 Jan 19. doi: 10.18865/ed.27.1.3</ref>
 +
 
 +
In addition, numerous studies report that athletes to be more religious than non-athletes.<ref>[http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/strength-religious-faith-athletes-and-nonathletes-two-ncaa-division-iii-institutions ''Strength of Religious Faith of Athletes and Nonathletes at Two NCAA Division III Institutions'']</ref> See also: [[Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism]]
 +
 
 +
=== Irreligion/nonreligious regions of the world and sedentary lifestyles ===
 +
 
 +
Irreligion/nonreligious regions have populations with significant problems when it comes to engaging in sedentary behavior (see: [[Atheism and sedentary lifestyles#Irreligion/nonreligious regions and sedentary behavior|Irreligion/nonreligious regions and sedentary behavior]]).
 +
 
 +
See also:
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and sedentary lifestyles#East Asian atheists and sedentary lifestyles|East Asian atheists and sedentary lifestyles]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and sedentary lifestyles#Secular Europe and sedentary lifestyles|Secular Europe and sedentary lifestyles]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and sedentary lifestyles#Australia and sedentary lifestyles|Australia and sedentary lifestyles]]
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism and physical fitness ===
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and physical fitness]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and cancer ==
 +
[[File:Europe map.png|thumbnail|250px|right|The [[World Health Organization]] declares concerning [[secular Europe]]: "[[Europe]] comprises only one eighth of the total world population but has around one quarter of the global total of [[cancer]] cases with some 3.7 million new patients per year."<ref>[http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/cancer/data-and-statistics World Health Organization - Cancer statistics for Europe]</ref>]]
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and cancer]]
 +
 
 +
Irreligious countries such as European countries and China, have significant problems with cancer (see: [[Atheism and cancer]]). The [[World Health Organization]] declares concerning [[secular Europe]]: "[[Europe]] comprises only one eighth of the total world population but has around one quarter of the global total of [[cancer]] cases with some 3.7 million new patients per year."<ref>[http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/cancer/data-and-statistics World Health Organization - Cancer statistics for Europe]</ref>
 +
 
 +
[[Denmark]], [[France]] and [[Australia]] have significantly higher rates of individuals holding to an [[Atheist worldview|atheistic worldview]] (see also: [[Irreligion in Denmark]] and [[French atheism]] and [[Irreligion in Australia]]). According to the World Cancer Research Fund International, Denmark, France and Australia have the three highest [[per capita]] cancer rates in the world.<ref>[http://www.wcrf.org/int/cancer-facts-figures/data-cancer-frequency-country Data for cancer frequency by country],  World Cancer Research Fund International</ref>
 +
 
 +
According to the American Cancer Society:
 +
{{Cquote|According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC), 69% of cancer patients say they pray for their health. A recent study published in ''Cancer'', a peer-reviewed journal of the American Cancer Society, suggests a link between religious or spiritual beliefs and better physical health reported among patients with cancer.<ref>[https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/study-cancer-patients-with-strong-religious-or-spiritual-beliefs-report-better-health.html Study: Cancer Patients with Strong Religious or Spiritual Beliefs Report Better Health], American Cancer Society</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism and penile cancer ===
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and penile cancer]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and obesity ==
 +
 
 +
[[File:11834504 3cc3c49559.jpg|186px|right|thumbnail|Two of the major risk factors for becoming [[obesity|obese]] according to the [[Mayo Clinic]] are poor dietary choices and inactivity.<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/obesity/DS00314/DSECTION=causes Causes of obesity]</ref> According to the [[Gallup poll|Gallup Inc.]], "Very religious Americans are more likely to practice healthy behaviors than those who are moderately religious or nonreligious."<ref>https://www.gallup.com/poll/145379/Religious-Americans-Lead-Healthier-Lives.aspx</ref> ]]
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and obesity]]
 +
 
 +
The current [[atheist population]] mostly resides in [[East Asia]] (particularly China) and in [[secular Europe]]/[[Australia]] primarily among whites.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/05/23/a-surprising-map-of-where-the-worlds-atheists-live/ A surprising map of where the world’s atheists live], By Max Fisher and Caitlin Dewey, ''Washington Post'', May 23, 2013</ref> See: [[Global atheism]] and [[Western atheism and race]]
 +
 
 +
Secular Europe and communist [[China]] have significant problems with obesity (see: [[Secular Europe and obesity]] and [[China and obesity]]). In addition, [[Australia]] has a significant problem with obesity (see: [[Australia, irreligion and obesity]]).
 +
 
 +
In the United States at the present time, the greater the degree of irreligiosity in a generation, the [[Atheism and obesity#Irreligion/religion, generations in the United States and obesity|higher their obesity rate is]]. According to the [[Gallup poll|Gallup Inc.]], "Very religious Americans are more likely to practice healthy behaviors than those who are moderately religious or nonreligious."<ref>[https://www.gallup.com/poll/145379/Religious-Americans-Lead-Healthier-Lives.aspx Very Religious Americans Lead Healthier Lives], Gallup Poll, 2010</ref> 
 +
 
 +
In addition, a significant number of prominent atheists are overweight (see: [[Atheism and obesity]]).
 +
 
 +
For more information, See: [[Atheism and obesity]]
 +
 
 +
=== Studies on religion and self-control plus diet/exercise and obesity ===
 +
 
 +
Two of the major risk factors for becoming [[obesity|obese]] according to the [[Mayo Clinic]] are poor dietary choices and inactivity.<ref>Mayo Clinic Staff (May 13, 2014).  [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/obesity/DS00314/DSECTION=causes "Causes [of obesity&#93;"].  Mayo Clinic website/Diseases and Conditions/Obesity/Basics.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>  In terms of physical activity/athleticism vs. slothfulness, please see: [[Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism]] and  [[Atheism and hedonism]] and [[Atheist nerds]]
 +
 
 +
In the journal article ''Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications'', psychologists McCullough and Willoughby theorize that many of the positive links of religiousness with health and social behavior may be caused by religion's beneficial influences on [[self-control]]/self-regulation.<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*McCullough, Michael E. and Willoughby, Brian L. B. (2009).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/Relig_self_control_bulletin.pdf "Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: associations, explanations, and implications"]. ''Psychological Bulletin'', vol. 135: 1, pp. 69–93.  Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Alternate source of abstract: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19210054 "Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: associations, explanations, and implications" [abstract&#93;].  Retrieved from PubMed.gov on September 10, 2014.</ref> Furthermore, a 2012 Queen's University study published in ''Psychological Science'' found that religion replenishes self-control.<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*Rounding, Kevin and Lee, Albert et al. [Queen’s University] (June 2012). [http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/05/02/0956797611431987.abstract "Religion replenishes self-control" [abstract&#93;]. ''Psychological Science'', vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 635-642.  Retrieved from Sage Journals on September 13, 2014.  Purchase required for full article.
 +
*Craig, Anne (January 24, 2012). [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-01/qu-qsf012412.php "Queen's study finds religion helps us gain self-control"].  Queen's University website [Canada].  Retrieved from EurekAlert on September 13, 2014.</ref> Also, numerous studies indicate that those who engage in regular spiritual practices have lower mortality rates.<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*McCullough, Michael E. et al. (2000).  [http://www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/mmccullough/Papers/rel_mort_meta.pdf "Religious involvement and mortality: a meta-analytic review"].  ''Health Psychology''. vol. 19:3. pp. 211-222.  Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Puchalski, Christina M. (October 2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1305900/ "The role of spirituality in health care"].  ''Proceedings of the Baylor University Medical Center'', vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 352–357.  Retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, PubMed Central website on May 23, 2015.</ref>
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and diabetes ==
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and diabetes]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and Alzheimer's disease ==
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and Alzheimer's disease]]
 +
 
 +
In irreligious/nonreligious regions, there is a significant amount of [[Alzheimer's disease]] (see: [[Irreligious/nonreligious geographic regions and Alzheimer's disease]]).
 +
 
 +
Diet, exercise, obesity, the degree of alcohol consumption, various spiritual practices and various other health practices are linked to the development and/or progression of Alzheimer's disease (see: [[Religion and Alzheimer's disease prevention]]).<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180628151649.htm Obesity + aging linked to Alzheimer's markers in the brain], ''Science Daily'', June 28, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29024348 Obesity as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: weighing the evidence.] by Alford S, Patel D, Perakakis N, Mantzoros CS., ''Obesity Reviews''. 2018 Feb;19(2):269-280. doi: 10.1111/obr.12629. Epub 2017 Oct 10.</ref>
 +
 
 +
For more information about religion/atheism and various health practices, please see: [[Atheism and Alzheimer's disease]].
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and loneliness ==
 +
 
 +
[[File:Flag of Denmark.png|right|200px|thumbnail|[[Denmark]] has the highest proportion of single-dwellers, at 24%.<ref>Barford, Vanessa (April 8, 2013).  [https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22012957 "Is modern life making us more lonely"]. BBC News website.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>]]
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
Loneliness has been linked to numerous physical and mental health problems.<ref>Multiple references:
 +
*Harmon, Katherine (March 2, 2012).  [http://www.livescience.com/18800-loneliness-health-problems.html "Why loneliness can be deadly"].  Live Science website.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
 +
*Booth, Robert (October 12, 2014).  "Number of severely lonely men over 50 set to rise to 1m in 15 years".  ''The Guardian''.</ref>
 +
 
 +
Compared to religious cultures where an extended family and a sense of community prevails, secular countries [[Secular countries and loneliness|are often lonelier societies]]. In addition,
 +
Numerous studies and other data indicate that [[Atheism|atheists]] have lower [[emotional intelligence]] and lower social skills (see: [[Atheism and emotional/intrapersonal intelligence|Atheism and emotional intelligence]] and [[Atheism and social/interpersonal intelligence|Atheiam and social skills]]).
 +
 
 +
It is also proven that loneliness leads to anxiety. One study has shown, however, that even just believing in life after death has a great effect on reducing anxiety. <ref>Kevin J. Flannelly et al., "Belief in Life After Death and Mental Health: Findings from a National Survey," ''The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease'' 194, no. 7 (July 2006): 524-29</ref>
 +
For more information, please see:
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Secular Europe and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[England and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic France and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Germany and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic Sweden and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Irreligious Finland and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheistic China and loneliness]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and psychopathy ==
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and psychopathy]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and autism ==
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and autism]]
 +
 
 +
In 2011, the University of Boston published a study on the correlation between [[atheism]] and high-functioning/mild [[autism]].<ref>[http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2011/papers/0782/paper0782.pdf Religious Belief Systems of Persons with High Functioning Autism], Catherine Caldwell-Harris, Caitlin Fox Murphy and Tessa Velazquez at the Department of Psychology - Boston University);  Patrick McNamara (Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine) </ref><ref>[https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2039690/Atheism-autism-Controversial-new-study-points-link-two.html Is atheism linked to autism? Controversial study points to  relationship between the two], ''Daily Mail'', 20 September 2011</ref>
 +
 
 +
On September 19, 2011, the ''Discover Magazine'' website had an article indicating that there were empirical results showing a positive correlation between atheism and high functioning [[autism]] and the article declared:
 +
{{cquote|This is why the empirical results on the [http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2011/09/atheism-as-mental-deviance/ correlation between atheism and high functioning autism] are important...
 +
 
 +
...some people were angry that I seemed to suggest that atheists were antisocial weirdos. Well, [http://www.gnxp.com/blog/2007/08/religiosity-and-personality-how-are.php there is some data to back that up].<ref>[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2011/09/what-atheism-and-autism-may-have-in-common/ What atheism and autism may have in common] By Razib Khan, September 19, 2011]</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
=== Atheism, autism and higher levels of genetic mutations ===
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheists and genetic mutations]]
 +
 
 +
Left-handedness is a good indicator of a high mutational load.<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/religion-healthy-atheism-mutant-genes-756984 RELIGIOUS PEOPLE LIVE HEALTHIER, LONGER LIVES—WHILE ATHEISTS COLLECT MUTANT GENES], Newsweek, 2017</ref> People who are left-handed higher incidences of autism and [[schizophrenia]].<ref>[Atheists are more likely to be left handed, study finds], ''The Telegraph'', 2017</ref> A study found that atheists are more likely to be left-handed (see: [[Atheists and genetic mutations]]).<ref>[http://www.newsweek.com/religion-healthy-atheism-mutant-genes-756984 RELIGIOUS PEOPLE LIVE HEALTHIER, LONGER LIVES—WHILE ATHEISTS COLLECT MUTANT GENES], Newsweek, 2017</ref><ref>[Atheists are more likely to be left handed, study finds], ''The Telegraph'', 2017</ref>
 +
 
 +
For additional information, please see:
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheists and genetic mutations]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and autism]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and medicine ==
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Atheism and medicine]] and [[Asian atheism]]
 +
 
 +
Razib Khanm wrote at ''Discover Magazine'':
 +
{{Cquote|...the most secular nations in the world are those of [[East Asia]], in particular what are often termed “[[Confucius|Confucian]] societies.” It is likely therefore that the majority of the world’s [[atheism|atheists]] are actually East Asian...
 +
 
 +
This is not to say that East Asia is necessarily a haven for a [[Critical rationalism|critical rationalist]] perspective, what with the prominence of [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]], [[geomancy]], Korean [[shamanism]]...<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150905135558/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2010/11/most-atheists-are-not-white/ Most atheists are not white & other non-fairy tales] By Razib Khanm, Discover Magazine</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
For more information, please: [[Atheism and medicine]]
 +
 
 +
== Dietary practices of atheists ==
 +
 
 +
*[[Dietary practices of atheists]] (Dietary habits of various irreligious regions)
 +
*[[Secular Europe and the consumption of unhealthy ultra-processed food]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and veganism ==
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and veganism]]
 +
 
 +
=== New Atheism and veganism ===
 +
 
 +
*[[New Atheism and veganism]]
 +
*[[Richard Dawkins on veganism]]
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and health: Journal articles ==
 +
 
 +
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3671693/ Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications] by Harold G. Koenig, International Scholarly Research Notices - Psychiatry
 +
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26743877 Health and Well-Being Among the Non-religious: Atheists, Agnostics, and No Preference Compared with Religious Group Members], ''Journal of Religion and Health''. 2016 Jun;55(3):1024-1037. 
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and the medical field ==
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and medicine]]
 +
*[[Atheism in medicine]]
 +
*[[Atheist hospitals]]
 +
*[[Atheist doctors]]
 +
 
 +
== Unhealthy lifestyles of the founders of the New Atheism movement ==
 +
 
 +
[[New Atheism]] is a form of [[militant atheism]].
 +
 
 +
Below are article's on the unhealthy lifestyles of the majority of the founders of New Atheism:
 +
 
 +
*[[New Atheism leaders and unhealthy lifestyles]]
 +
 
 +
*[[New Atheism leadership's problem with excess weight]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Richard Dawkins' health]]
 +
 
 +
== Sigmund Freud's view of religion ==
 +
[[Image:freud-thumb.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Sigmund Freud]] in his laboratory]]
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Sigmund Freud's view of religion]]
 +
 
 +
[[Psychology|Psychologist]] [[Sigmund Freud]] was a proponent of atheism who argued that theism was detrimental to mental health.<ref name="christtoday">McGrath, Alister (February 28, 2005).  [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/003/21.36.html "The twilight of atheism"].  ''Christianity Today'' website.  Retrieved on May 23, 2015.</ref>  [[Oxford]] Professor [[Alister McGrath]], author of the book ''The Twilight of Atheism'',  stated the following regarding Freud:
 +
{{cquote|One of the most important criticisms that Sigmund Freud directed against religion was that it encourages unhealthy and dysfunctional outlooks on life. Having dismissed religion as an illusion, Freud went on to argue that it is a negative factor in personal development. At times, Freud's influence has been such that the elimination of a person's religious beliefs has been seen as a precondition for mental health.
 +
 
 +
Freud is now a fallen idol, the fall having been all the heavier for its postponement. There is now growing awareness of the importance of spirituality in health care, both as a positive factor in relation to well-being and as an issue to which patients have a right. The "Spirituality and Healing in Medicine" conference sponsored by [[Harvard]] Medical School in 1998 brought reports that 86 percent of Americans as a whole, 99 percent of family physicians, and 94 percent of HMO professionals believe that prayer, meditation, and other spiritual and religious practices exercise a major positive role within the healing process.<ref name="christtoday">http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/march/21.36.html</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
Freud remains popular among [[postmodern]] literary academics, who use his [[anti-Christian]] pseudoscience as a basis for their own anti-Christianity and moral relativism, even though his theories were disproved decades ago.
 +
 
 +
Freud died of oral cancer.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6360488 The oral cancer of Sigmund Freud], Clinical Plastic Surgery. 1983 Oct;10(4):709-14.]</ref> Freud was a heavy smoker with a 20-cigar/day habit.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15293843 Sigmund Freud: smoking habit, oral cancer and euthanasia] by Adeyemo WL. ''Nigerian Journal of Medicine'', 2004 Apr-Jun;13(2):189-95.</ref>
 +
See also: [[Atheism and smoking]] and [[Atheism and cancer]] and [[Prominent atheists who had cancer]]
 +
 
 +
=== Lack of significant study by psychologists about atheism ===
 +
 
 +
Dr. Melanie Brewster gave a talk entitled ''Why is Psychology Silent When it Comes to Atheism?'' and she indicated there is a general reluctance of psychologists to study the atheist population.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fB7Dlwaufyk Why is Psychology Silent When it Comes to Atheism? - Dr. Melanie Brewster - Skepticon 7]</ref>
 +
 
 +
== Atheism and the coronavirus epidemic ==
 +
 
 +
See: [[Atheism and the coronavirus pandemic]]
 +
 
 +
== Cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity still a matter of speculation  ==
 +
[[File:Old Nietzsche, 1899.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Currently, there is an ongoing debate on whether atheism was a causal factor for [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s insanity or whether it was caused purely through disease.]]
 +
 
 +
''See also:'' [[Cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity]]
 +
 
 +
Currently, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether atheism was a causal factor for [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s insanity or whether it was caused strictly by disease.<ref name="Nietzsche">Multiple references:
 +
*Owen, C. M., et al. (September 2007).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17881977 "The madness of Dionysus: a neurosurgical perspective on Friedrich Nietzsche" [abstract&#93;]. ''Neurosurgery'', vol. 61:3, pp. 626-32.  Abstract retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Brace, Robin A. (2006).  [http://www.ukapologetics.net/truthaboutnietzsche.html "Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): the 'God is dead' man died in a state of complete insanity—but Christianity lives on!"]  UK Apologetics.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Hutchison, Fred (March 7, 2007).  [http://www.renewamerica.com/columns/hutchison/130704 "Liberalism and the two roads to nihilism: how liberalism can collapse into nihilism through materialism or false idealism"].  RenewAmerica.  Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Orth, M. and Trimble, M. R. (December 2006).  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17087793?dopt=Abstract "Friedrich Nietzsche's mental illness—general paralysis of the insane vs. frontotemporal dementia" [abstract&#93;].  ''Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica'', vol. 114:6, pp. 439-45.  Abstract retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Sax, Leonard (February 2003).  [http://www.leonardsax.com/Nietzsche.pdf "What was the cause of Nietzsche's dementia?"] ''Journal of Medical Biography'', vol. 11, pp. 47-54.  Retrieved from www.leonardsax.com on July 24, 2014.
 +
*Girard, René (March 1, 1988). [https://books.google.com/books?id=x4qDrNKVC5gC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=Ren%C3%A9+Girard+nietzsche+and+madness&source=bl&ots=DQFLJpqjJd&sig=mXNq_6J6_qTciP2vW-FHojwBn20&hl=en&ei=hv99Sp0Y2YG2B8Ogsf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false "Chapter 4: Strategies of madness—Nietzsche, Wagner and Dostoevsky" [preview&#93;].  ''To Double Business Bound'' (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press), pp. 61-82+.  Preview retrieved from GoogleBooks on July 25, 2014.
 +
*[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3313279/Madness-of-Nietzsche-was-cancer-not-syphilis.html 'Madness' of Nietzsche was cancer not syphilis], ''The Telegraph'', May 2003
 +
*[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/24/books/the-will-to-madness.html The Will to Madness], ''New York Times'', 1999
 +
*Palmquist, Stephen (1995).  [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/top/top19 "Chapter 19: Nietzsche's moral breakthrough"].  ''The Tree of Philosophy'' (Hong Kong:  Philopsychy Press).  Retrieved from Hong Kong Baptist University website on July 25, 2014.</ref>
 +
 
 +
An article published on the Hong Kong Baptist University website offers the following regarding the cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity:
 +
{{cquote|Trying to explain what caused his insanity can only be a matter of speculation. Some people believe it was the result of a physical illness. Others interpret his suffering as that of a true prophet, almost as if he were accepting the punishment on behalf of those who could not see mankind's tendency towards self-destruction so clearly. Still others regard his final fate as a natural outcome of his philosophical outlook.<ref name="hkbu">Palmquist, Stephen (1995).  [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/top/top19 "Chapter 19: Nietzsche's moral breakthrough"].  ''The Tree of Philosophy'' (Hong Kong:  Philopsychy Press).  Retrieved from Hong Kong Baptist University website on July 25, 2014.</ref>}}
 +
 
 +
The Russian-born psychoanalyst and writer Lou Andreas-Salomé, who had a brief and tempestuous affair with Nietzsche, believed that Nietzsche's philosophy can be viewed as a reflection of his psychology and that his madness was the result of his philosophizing.<ref>Salomé, Lou (1988).  [https://www.amazon.com/Nietzsche-Lou-Salome/dp/0252070356 ''Nietzsche'' [preview&#93;] (University of Illinois).  Translation of ''Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken'' (1894) translated by Mandel, Elise and Mandel, Theo S.  Preview retrieved from Amazon.com on July 25, 2014.</ref>  In addition, the French historian René Girard asserted that Nietzsche's philosophy led to his insanity.<ref>Girard, René (March 1, 1988). [https://books.google.com/books?id=x4qDrNKVC5gC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=Ren%C3%A9+Girard+nietzsche+and+madness&source=bl&ots=DQFLJpqjJd&sig=mXNq_6J6_qTciP2vW-FHojwBn20&hl=en&ei=hv99Sp0Y2YG2B8Ogsf4B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false "Chapter 4: Strategies of madness—Nietzsche, Wagner and Dostoevsky" [preview&#93;].  ''To Double Business Bound'' (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press), pp. 61-82+.  Preview retrieved from GoogleBooks on July 25, 2014.</ref>
 +
 
 +
== See also ==
 +
 
 +
*[[Atheism and negative emotions/thoughts]]
 +
*[[Disadvantages of atheism]]
 +
*[[Atheists and physical attractiveness]]
 +
*[[The Bible and health]]
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
{{Nb Atheism}}
  
−
In regards to data that relates to mental health and atheism, in December of 2003, the University of Warwick reported the following:
+
== Notes ==
−
{{cquote|Dr. Stephen Joseph, from the University of Warwick, said: "Religious people seem to have a greater purpose in life, which is why they are happier. Looking at the research evidence, it seems that those who celebrate the Christian meaning of [[Christmas]] are on the whole likely to be happier.<ref>http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2003/A/20037338.html</ref>}}
+
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 +
[[Category:Atheism]]
 +
[[Category:Obesity]]
 +
[[Category:Diseases]]

Latest revision as of 09:51, May 2, 2023

The prestigious Mayo Clinic found that that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life and other health outcomes.[1]

Concerning atheism and health, there is considerable amount of scientific evidence that suggest that atheism is less conducive to mental and physical health than theism (belief in the existence of God/gods).[2]

The prestigious Mayo Clinic reported on December 11, 2001 concerning the religious and recovery from illnesses:

“ In an article also published in this issue of Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Mayo Clinic researchers reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life and other health outcomes.

The authors report a majority of the nearly 350 studies of physical health and 850 studies of mental health that have used religious and spiritual variables have found that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes.[1]

”

The Iona Institute reported concerning atheism and life expectancy: "A meta-analysis of all studies, both published and unpublished, relating to religious involvement and longevity was carried out in 2000. Forty-two studies were included, involving some 126,000 subjects. Active religious involvement increased the chance of living longer by some 29%, and participation in public religious practices, such as church attendance, increased the chance of living longer by 43%."[3]

In December 2003, the University of Warwick reported: "Dr. Stephen Joseph, from the University of Warwick, said: "Religious people seem to have a greater purpose in life, which is why they are happier. Looking at the research evidence, it seems that those who celebrate the Christian meaning of Christmas are on the whole likely to be happier."[4]

See also: Atheism and depression and Atheism and suicide and Atheism and alcoholism

Duke University has established the Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health.[5] The Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health is based in the Center for Aging at Duke and gives opportunities for scholarly trans-disciplinary conversation and the development of collaborative research projects.[6] In respect to the atheism and mental and physical health, the center offers many studies which suggest that theism is more beneficial than atheism.[7]

Atheism, health and life expectancy

See also: Atheism and life expectancy

The journal article Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications published in the journal International Scholar Research Notes Psychiatry by Harold G. Koenig stated concerning religion/spirituality (R/S):

“ The most impressive research on the relationship between R/S and physical health is in the area of mortality. The cumulative effect of R/S, if it has any benefits to physical health, ought to reveal itself in an effect on mortality. The research suggests it does. At least 121 studies have examined relationships between R/S and mortality. Most of these are prospective cohort studies, where baseline R/S is assessed as a predictor of mortality during the observation period, controlling for confounders. Of those studies, 82 (68%) found that greater R/S predicted significantly greater longevity (three at a trend level), whereas six studies (5%) reported shorter longevity. Considering the 63 methodologically most rigorous studies (quality ratings of 8 or higher), 47 (75%) found R/S predicting greater longevity (two at trend level) [548–566], whereas three (5%) reported shorter longevity [567–569]. Another systematic review [570] and two meta-analyses [571, 572] have confirmed this relationship between R/S and longer survival. The effects have been particularly strong for frequency of attendance at religious services in these three reviews. Survival among frequent attendees was increased on average by 37%, 43%, and 30% (mean effect being 37% across these reviews). An increased survival of 37% is highly significant and equivalent to the effects of cholesterol lowering drugs or exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction on survival [573].[8] ”

Atheism, sexuality and longevity

See also: Atheism and sexuality and Atheism and marriage and Atheist marriages

Men who are satisfied with their sexual lives have greater longevity.[9]

In 2011, The Daily Beast conceded in an article entitled Why Are Christians Having Better Sex Than the Rest of Us?, "The devout are actually having better sex than the rest of us."[10]

Research shows that among women, religious women (especially evangelical/low church Protestant women) are more sexually satisfied than irreligious women.[10][11][12]

Social science data also reports that Hispanic men are more sexually satisfied than other ethnic groups in the United States.[13] Hispanics are known for their religiosity. For example, in 2015, BloombergView reported concerning the United States: "According to a much-discussed 2012 report from the Pew Research Center on Religion and Public Life, only 3 percent of U.S. atheists and agnostics are black, 6 percent are Hispanic, and 4 percent are Asian. Some 82 percent are white. (The relevant figures for the population at large at the time of the survey were 66 percent white, 11 percent black, 15 percent Hispanic, 5 percent Asian.)"[14] See also: Western atheism and race

In the United States, the Republican Party has a large segment of religious conservatives and they are influential within the party.[15] ABC News reported that "More Republicans Satisfied With Sex Lives Than Democrats".[16]

For more information, please see: Atheism and sexuality

Atheism and mental health

See: Atheism and mental illness

Religion and mental health

The abstract for the journal article Health and Well-Being Among the Non-religious: Atheists, Agnostics, and No Preference Compared with Religious Group Members published in the Journal of Religion and Health indicates: "On dimensions related to psychological well-being, atheists and agnostics tended to have worse outcomes than either those with religious affiliation or those with no religious preference."[17]

Believing in God can help block anxiety and minimize stress, according to new University of Toronto research that shows distinct brain differences between believers and non-believers.[18] See: Atheism and anxiety

Global News reported:

“ Children who are raised with religious or spiritual beliefs tend to have better mental health into their adulthood, a new study from the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health found.

According to the study’s findings, people who attended weekly religious services or prayed or meditated daily in their childhood reported greater life satisfaction in their 20s. People who grew up in a religious household also reported fewer symptoms of depression and lower rates of post-traumatic stress disorder.[19]

”

Atheists and negative emotions/thoughts

See also: Atheism and emotional problems and Atheism and social/interpersonal intelligence and Atheism and negative emotions/thoughts

Emotional intelligence "refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions."[20] Research indicates that religiosity is positively associated with ability in emotional intelligence.[21][22][23] See also: Atheism and emotional problems and Atheism and social/interpersonal intelligence and Atheism and negative emotions/thoughts

Atheists and various anxieties

See also: Atheism and anxiety

Atheists suffer from a variety of anxieties that often the religiously devout do not suffer from or rarely suffer from (see: Atheism and anxiety).

Secular leftists and mental illness

See: Secular leftists and psychogenic illness

Atheism and mental toughness

See: Atheism and mental toughness

Brain research studies of atheists and believers in God

Atheism and the brain

Brain researchers have conducted a number of studies focusing on the differences between atheists and the religious. See: Atheism and the brain

See also: Atheism and the brain

Brain researchers have conducted a number of studies focusing on the differences between atheists and the religious (See: Atheism and the brain).

Religious individuals and thicker cerebral cortices

According to the Journal of the American Medical Association - Psychiatry, people who place a high importance of religion in their lives have thicker cerebral cortices and may be better able to fight depression.[24][25] See: Atheism and depression and Atheism and suicide

Atheists and dopamine levels in the brain

See also: Atheism and motivation and Atheism and amotivational syndrome

According to Scientific American: "Research also suggests that a religious brain exhibits higher levels of dopamine, a hormone associated with increased attention and motivation."[26] See also: Atheism and motivation and Atheism and amotivational syndrome and Atheism and the brain

Religion/irreligion, regular prayer/meditation and larger frontal lobes

Atheism and autism

See: Atheism and autism

Atheism, suicide and depression

See main article: Atheism and suicide and Atheism and depression and Atheism and happiness

Although there are recent studies relating to atheism being a causal factor for suicide for some individuals, an early proponent of atheism being a causal factor for suicide was the Reverend Dr. Robert S. MacArthur.[27] In 1894, the New York Times stated the following in relation to atheism and suicide:

“ Dr. Martin urged that a great cause of suicide was atheism. It was, he said, a remarkable fact that where atheism prevailed most, there suicides were most numerous. In Paris, a recent census showed one suicide to every 2,700 of the population. After the publication of Paine's "Age of Reason" suicides increased.[28] ”
Pitzer College sociologist Phil Zuckerman stated concerning suicide rates: "this is the one indicator of societal health in which religious nations fare much better than secular nations."

The same New York Times article quotes the Reverend Dr. MacArthur describing suicide in the following manner: "It is mean and not manly; it is dastardly and not daring. A man who involves his innocent wife and children in financial disaster and disgrace and takes his life and leaves them to bear the burden he was unwilling to bear, is a coward."[28]

Phil Zuckerman is a professor of sociology and secular studies at Pitzer College in Claremont, California (which was the first secular studies university department[29]). He specialization is in the sociology of secularity.

The website Adherents.com reported the following in respect to atheism and suicide:

“ Pitzer College sociologist Phil Zuckerman compiled country-by-country survey, polling and census numbers relating to atheism, agnosticism, disbelief in God and people who state they are non-religious or have no religious preference. These data were published in the chapter titled "Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns" in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2005). In examining various indicators of societal health, Zuckerman concludes about suicide:

"Concerning suicide rates, this is the one indicator of societal health in which religious nations fare much better than secular nations. According to the 2003 World Health Organization's report on international male suicides rates (which compared 100 countries), of the top ten nations with the highest male suicide rates, all but one (Sri Lanka) are strongly irreligious nations with high levels of atheism. It is interesting to note, however, that of the top remaining nine nations leading the world in male suicide rates, all are former Soviet/Communist nations, such as Belarus, Ukraine, and Latvia. Of the bottom ten nations with the lowest male suicide rates, all are highly religious nations with statistically insignificant levels of organic atheism."[30]

”

Concerning atheism and depression, a University of Michigan study involving 19,775 individuals found that religious people are less likely than atheists to suffer depression when they are lonely.[31] See also: Atheism and loneliness

Australian online opinion writer and lecturer in ethics and philosophy at several Melbourne theological colleges, Bill Muehlenberg, in his essay "The Unbearable Heaviness of Being (in a World without God)" states the following:

“ Announcing, and believing, that God is dead has consequences. And it is we who suffer the most for it. We cannot bear the whole universe on our shoulders. We were not meant to. We must let God be God. Only then can men be men. Only then can we find the way forward to be possible, and the burdens not insurmountable.[32] ”

Ex-Christians, self-esteem and suicide

See also: Ex-Christians, self-esteem and suicide and Atheism and self-esteem and Ex-atheists

There are preliminary studies indicating that individuals who reject Christianity in Western cultures have lower self-esteem than the Christian population.[33] There are studies indicating that lower self-esteem is associated with suicidality.[34]

Richard Dawkins
Richard Dawkins

Richard Dawkins' book "The God Delusion" along with a community college biology class, have been linked to the tragic suicide of Jesse Kilgore.[35] Kilgore had several discussions with friends and relatives in which he made it clear Dawkins' book had destroyed his belief in God. This loss of faith is considered the cause of his suicide which is not surprising given that there is evidence which suggest that atheism can be a causal factor for suicide for some individuals.[27]

Jesse's father is quoted as saying "If my son was a professing homosexual, and a professor challenged him to read [a book called] 'Preventing Homosexuality'… If my son was gay and [the book] made him feel bad, hopeless, and he killed himself, and that came out in the press, there would be an outcry. He would have been a victim of a hate crime and the professor would have been forced to undergo sensitivity training, and there may have even been a wrongful death lawsuit. But because he's a Christian, I don't even get a return telephone call."

Jesse's blog remained online after his death.[36]

At the same time, there is a significant portion of the atheist population who suffer from excess self-esteem/pride issues (see: Causes of atheism).

Atheism, gender and suicide

See also: Atheism, gender and suicide and Atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women and Atheism and suicide

Survey data and website tracking data of prominent atheists' websites indicate that in the Western World, atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women (see: Atheism appears to be significantly less appealing to women).[37]


Science Daily reports:

“ Many studies have identified a strong link between suicide and diagnosable mental illness, especially depression. So because women suffer from depression at a much higher rate than men, they would seem to be at higher risk for suicide. But women actually commit suicide about one-fourth as often as men.[38] ”

Atheism, marriage and suicide

See also: Atheism and marriageability and Atheism and suicide and Atheism, marriage and suicide

Christian apologist Michael Caputo wrote: "Recently the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life has published its mammoth study on Religion in America based on 35,000 interviews... According to the Pew Forum a whopping 37% of atheists never marry as opposed to 19% of the American population, 17% of Protestants and 17% of Catholics.[39] See: Atheism and marriage

According to the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) over 50% of all atheists and agnostics don’t get married.[40]

According the website Marriage and Family Encyclopedia: "Marital status has a strong association with rates of completed suicide. Suicide rates are higher in the divorced and widowed than in single people, who in turn have higher suicide rates than married people. This protective effect of marriage on suicide is stronger for men than for women, although it is found for both men and women (Gove 1972)."[41]

Atheism and European suicide in the 17th century

Chandak Sengoopta, in a book review of Georges Minois's work History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture wrote:

“ Suicide became a prominent issue in England from the turn of the seventeenth century. The number of suicides, it was reported, had risen alarmingly and in the preface to his 1733 work, The English Malady, physician George Cheyne declared that he had been spurred to write it "by the late Frequency and daily Encrease of wanton and uncommon self-murders" (p. 181). According to Cheyne, the spread of atheism as well as the gloomy, melancholy-inducing climate of England were responsible for the rise in suicides; while his explanations were not always accepted, virtually nobody seems to have doubted that England had become the world capital of suicides. As Minois explains, there undoubtedly was a rise in the rates of reported suicides but, as far as one can tell from the available data, it was a European rather than an exclusively English phenomenon.[42] ”

Atheism, uncharitableness and depression

See also: Atheism and depression and Atheism, uncharitableness and depression

A number of studies have confirmed that there is an inverse relationship to doing volunteer work and depression.[43] The atheist population does less charitable works and volunteering per capita than the theist population (see: Atheism and uncharitableness).

Atheism and alcoholism

According to the World Health Organization's (WHO) regional office in Europe, "The WHO European Region has the highest proportion in the world of total ill health and premature death due to alcohol.[44]

See also: Atheism and alcoholism and Atheism, alcoholism and personality disorders and Atheism and mental illness

At least 100 studies suggests religion has a positive effect on preventing alcohol-related problems, researchers Christopher Ellison, Jennifer Barrett and Benjamin Moulton noted in an article in the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion on “Gender, Marital Status, and Alcohol Behavior: The Neglected Role of Religion.”[45]

Atheists and atheistic cultures often have significant problems with excess alcohol usage (For more information please see: Atheism and alcoholism).

Secular countries/regions and alcoholism

Secular Europe:

According to the World Health Organization's (WHO) regional office in Europe, "The WHO European Region has the highest proportion in the world of total ill health and premature death due to alcohol.[44]


Australia:

An Australian National Council on Drugs (ANCD) report indicated that 20% of Australians drink at levels putting them at risk of lifetime harm.[46]

For more information, please see: Irreligious Australia and alcoholism


Alcoholism was a serious social problem in the former atheistic Soviet Union.[47] Between 1940 and 1980, this atheist state had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.[48]

Asian countries:


History of communism:

Alcoholism was a serious social problem in the former atheistic Soviet Union.[47] Between 1940 and 1980, this atheist state had the largest increase of the amount of alcohol usage in the developed world.[48]

Atheism, alcoholism and anger

Atheism, alcoholism and anger

Irreligion, alcoholism and various generations in the United States


Recent generations in the United States:

American Atheism, gender, race and alcoholism

Binge drinking and brain damage

A 2012 study suggests that a habit of binge drink risks serious brain damage including increasing memory loss later in adulthood.[49]

Currently, there is a downward trend in intelligence scores in secular countries (see: Intelligence trends in religious countries and secular countries).

Atheism, binge drinking and suicide

Binge drinking is a potent risk factor for suicide.[50] Atheists have a higher suicide rate than the general population.

Atheism and smoking

See also: Atheism and smoking

Smoking is a causal factor for various cancers such as lung cancer and cancers of the esophagus, larynx, mouth, throat, kidney, bladder, liver, pancreas, stomach, cervix, colon, and rectum, as well as acute myeloid leukemia.[51][52][53] The irreligious are more likely to be smokers (See: Atheism and smoking).

Atheism and illegal drug use and drug addition

Studies indicate that religious individuals are less likely to engage in illegal drug use than atheists/nonreligious.[54]

See also: Atheism and drug addiction

Studies indicate that religious individuals are less likely to engage in illegal drug use than atheists/nonreligious.[54]

According to Science Daily: "Young Swiss men who say that they believe in God are less likely to smoke cigarettes or pot or take ecstasy pills than Swiss men of the same age group who describe themselves as atheists. Belief is a protective factor against addictive behaviour. This is the conclusion reached by a study funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation."[55]

Atheism, panic attacks, stress, negative emotions, alcoholism and smoking

See also: Atheism, panic attacks, stress, negative emotions, alcoholism and smoking

Atheism and sedentary lifestyles

See also: Atheism and sedentary lifestyles and Atheism and motivation

Numerous studies report that athletes to be more religious than non-athletes.[56] See also: Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism

Sedentary lifestyles reduce life expectancy.[57]

The journal article Spirituality and Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Latino Men and Women in Massachusetts which was published in the journal Ethnicity and Disease declared: "There is a significant negative relationship between spirituality and sedentary behavior."[58]

In addition, numerous studies report that athletes to be more religious than non-athletes.[59] See also: Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism

Irreligion/nonreligious regions of the world and sedentary lifestyles

Irreligion/nonreligious regions have populations with significant problems when it comes to engaging in sedentary behavior (see: Irreligion/nonreligious regions and sedentary behavior).

See also:

Atheism and physical fitness

See: Atheism and physical fitness

Atheism and cancer

The World Health Organization declares concerning secular Europe: "Europe comprises only one eighth of the total world population but has around one quarter of the global total of cancer cases with some 3.7 million new patients per year."[60]

See also: Atheism and cancer

Irreligious countries such as European countries and China, have significant problems with cancer (see: Atheism and cancer). The World Health Organization declares concerning secular Europe: "Europe comprises only one eighth of the total world population but has around one quarter of the global total of cancer cases with some 3.7 million new patients per year."[61]

Denmark, France and Australia have significantly higher rates of individuals holding to an atheistic worldview (see also: Irreligion in Denmark and French atheism and Irreligion in Australia). According to the World Cancer Research Fund International, Denmark, France and Australia have the three highest per capita cancer rates in the world.[62]

According to the American Cancer Society:

“ According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 69% of cancer patients say they pray for their health. A recent study published in Cancer, a peer-reviewed journal of the American Cancer Society, suggests a link between religious or spiritual beliefs and better physical health reported among patients with cancer.[63] ”

Atheism and penile cancer

See: Atheism and penile cancer

Atheism and obesity

Two of the major risk factors for becoming obese according to the Mayo Clinic are poor dietary choices and inactivity.[64] According to the Gallup Inc., "Very religious Americans are more likely to practice healthy behaviors than those who are moderately religious or nonreligious."[65]

See also: Atheism and obesity

The current atheist population mostly resides in East Asia (particularly China) and in secular Europe/Australia primarily among whites.[66] See: Global atheism and Western atheism and race

Secular Europe and communist China have significant problems with obesity (see: Secular Europe and obesity and China and obesity). In addition, Australia has a significant problem with obesity (see: Australia, irreligion and obesity).

In the United States at the present time, the greater the degree of irreligiosity in a generation, the higher their obesity rate is. According to the Gallup Inc., "Very religious Americans are more likely to practice healthy behaviors than those who are moderately religious or nonreligious."[67]

In addition, a significant number of prominent atheists are overweight (see: Atheism and obesity).

For more information, See: Atheism and obesity

Studies on religion and self-control plus diet/exercise and obesity

Two of the major risk factors for becoming obese according to the Mayo Clinic are poor dietary choices and inactivity.[68] In terms of physical activity/athleticism vs. slothfulness, please see: Sports performance: Religious faith vs. atheism and Atheism and hedonism and Atheist nerds

In the journal article Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications, psychologists McCullough and Willoughby theorize that many of the positive links of religiousness with health and social behavior may be caused by religion's beneficial influences on self-control/self-regulation.[69] Furthermore, a 2012 Queen's University study published in Psychological Science found that religion replenishes self-control.[70] Also, numerous studies indicate that those who engage in regular spiritual practices have lower mortality rates.[71]

Atheism and diabetes

See: Atheism and diabetes

Atheism and Alzheimer's disease

See: Atheism and Alzheimer's disease

In irreligious/nonreligious regions, there is a significant amount of Alzheimer's disease (see: Irreligious/nonreligious geographic regions and Alzheimer's disease).

Diet, exercise, obesity, the degree of alcohol consumption, various spiritual practices and various other health practices are linked to the development and/or progression of Alzheimer's disease (see: Religion and Alzheimer's disease prevention).[72][73]

For more information about religion/atheism and various health practices, please see: Atheism and Alzheimer's disease.

Atheism and loneliness

Denmark has the highest proportion of single-dwellers, at 24%.[74]

See also: Atheism and loneliness

Loneliness has been linked to numerous physical and mental health problems.[75]

Compared to religious cultures where an extended family and a sense of community prevails, secular countries are often lonelier societies. In addition, Numerous studies and other data indicate that atheists have lower emotional intelligence and lower social skills (see: Atheism and emotional intelligence and Atheiam and social skills).

It is also proven that loneliness leads to anxiety. One study has shown, however, that even just believing in life after death has a great effect on reducing anxiety. [76] For more information, please see:

Atheism and psychopathy

See: Atheism and psychopathy

Atheism and autism

See also: Atheism and autism

In 2011, the University of Boston published a study on the correlation between atheism and high-functioning/mild autism.[77][78]

On September 19, 2011, the Discover Magazine website had an article indicating that there were empirical results showing a positive correlation between atheism and high functioning autism and the article declared:

“ This is why the empirical results on the correlation between atheism and high functioning autism are important...

...some people were angry that I seemed to suggest that atheists were antisocial weirdos. Well, there is some data to back that up.[79]

”

Atheism, autism and higher levels of genetic mutations

See also: Atheists and genetic mutations

Left-handedness is a good indicator of a high mutational load.[80] People who are left-handed higher incidences of autism and schizophrenia.[81] A study found that atheists are more likely to be left-handed (see: Atheists and genetic mutations).[82][83]

For additional information, please see:

Atheism and medicine

See also: Atheism and medicine and Asian atheism

Razib Khanm wrote at Discover Magazine:

“ ...the most secular nations in the world are those of East Asia, in particular what are often termed “Confucian societies.” It is likely therefore that the majority of the world’s atheists are actually East Asian...

This is not to say that East Asia is necessarily a haven for a critical rationalist perspective, what with the prominence of Chinese medicine, geomancy, Korean shamanism...[84]

”

For more information, please: Atheism and medicine

Dietary practices of atheists

Atheism and veganism

See: Atheism and veganism

New Atheism and veganism

Atheism and health: Journal articles

Atheism and the medical field

Unhealthy lifestyles of the founders of the New Atheism movement

New Atheism is a form of militant atheism.

Below are article's on the unhealthy lifestyles of the majority of the founders of New Atheism:

Sigmund Freud's view of religion

Sigmund Freud in his laboratory

See also: Sigmund Freud's view of religion

Psychologist Sigmund Freud was a proponent of atheism who argued that theism was detrimental to mental health.[85] Oxford Professor Alister McGrath, author of the book The Twilight of Atheism, stated the following regarding Freud:

“ One of the most important criticisms that Sigmund Freud directed against religion was that it encourages unhealthy and dysfunctional outlooks on life. Having dismissed religion as an illusion, Freud went on to argue that it is a negative factor in personal development. At times, Freud's influence has been such that the elimination of a person's religious beliefs has been seen as a precondition for mental health.

Freud is now a fallen idol, the fall having been all the heavier for its postponement. There is now growing awareness of the importance of spirituality in health care, both as a positive factor in relation to well-being and as an issue to which patients have a right. The "Spirituality and Healing in Medicine" conference sponsored by Harvard Medical School in 1998 brought reports that 86 percent of Americans as a whole, 99 percent of family physicians, and 94 percent of HMO professionals believe that prayer, meditation, and other spiritual and religious practices exercise a major positive role within the healing process.[85]

”

Freud remains popular among postmodern literary academics, who use his anti-Christian pseudoscience as a basis for their own anti-Christianity and moral relativism, even though his theories were disproved decades ago.

Freud died of oral cancer.[86] Freud was a heavy smoker with a 20-cigar/day habit.[87] See also: Atheism and smoking and Atheism and cancer and Prominent atheists who had cancer

Lack of significant study by psychologists about atheism

Dr. Melanie Brewster gave a talk entitled Why is Psychology Silent When it Comes to Atheism? and she indicated there is a general reluctance of psychologists to study the atheist population.[88]

Atheism and the coronavirus epidemic

See: Atheism and the coronavirus pandemic

Cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity still a matter of speculation

Currently, there is an ongoing debate on whether atheism was a causal factor for Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity or whether it was caused purely through disease.

See also: Cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity

Currently, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether atheism was a causal factor for Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity or whether it was caused strictly by disease.[89]

An article published on the Hong Kong Baptist University website offers the following regarding the cause of Friedrich Nietzsche's insanity:

“ Trying to explain what caused his insanity can only be a matter of speculation. Some people believe it was the result of a physical illness. Others interpret his suffering as that of a true prophet, almost as if he were accepting the punishment on behalf of those who could not see mankind's tendency towards self-destruction so clearly. Still others regard his final fate as a natural outcome of his philosophical outlook.[90] ”

The Russian-born psychoanalyst and writer Lou Andreas-Salomé, who had a brief and tempestuous affair with Nietzsche, believed that Nietzsche's philosophy can be viewed as a reflection of his psychology and that his madness was the result of his philosophizing.[91] In addition, the French historian René Girard asserted that Nietzsche's philosophy led to his insanity.[92]

See also


v • d • e
Atheism
Atheism • Rebuttal • Morals • Academics • Quotes • Christianity • Debate • Evolution • Atheism and the suppression of science • Mass Murder • Communism • Atheist Shooters and Serial Killers • Mental and Physical Health • Miracles • Morality • Uncharitableness • Agnosticism • Deception • The Bible • The Problem of Evil • Agenda • Psychology • Population • Prison Statistics • Racism • Atheism and women • Brights Movement • Causes • Death Toll • Definitions • Evangelical atheist • Ex-atheists • Faith Freedom International • Godless: The Church of Liberalism‎ • Godless liberal • His Dark Materials • History • Liberalism • Militancy • New Atheism • Videos • Skeptics Annotated Bible • Strong atheism • The God Delusion • There Are No Atheists In Foxholes • Weak atheism 

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Mueller, Dr. Paul S. et al. (December 2001). "Religious involvement, spirituality, and medicine: implications for clinical practice". Mayo Clinic Proceedings vol. 76:12, pp. 1225-1235. Retrieved from Mayo Clinic Proceedings website on July 20, 2014.
  2. ↑ Multiple references:
  3. ↑ Multiple references:
  4. ↑ University of Warwick (December 2003). "Psychology researcher [Dr. Stephen Joseph] says spiritual meaning of Christmas brings more happiness than materialism". Scienceblog. Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
  5. ↑ Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
  6. ↑ "About us." The Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health. Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
  7. ↑ "Research library". Duke University Center for Spirituality, Theology and Health. Retrieved on July 24, 2014.
  8. ↑ Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications, International Scholar Research Notes Psychiatry by Harold G. Koenig, 2012
  9. ↑ The Best Reason to Have Sex by Philip Weiss, Men's Journal
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Why Are Christians Having Better Sex Than the Rest of Us? by Tucker Carlson, The Daily Beast, November 11, 25, 2008
  11. ↑ The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States By Edward O. Laumann, John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, Stuart Michaels, page 115
  12. ↑ Christian Women Have More Sexual Fun, Relationship Center in Springfield Missouri
  13. ↑ The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States By Edward O. Laumann, John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, Stuart Michaels, page 114
  14. ↑ The Atheism Gap By Stephen L. Carter, BloombergView, Mar 27, 2015 4:26 PM EDT
  15. ↑ How Many Highly Religious Conservative Republicans Are There?, Gallup Organization statistics
  16. ↑ More Republicans Satisfied With Sex Lives Than Democrats, ABC News
  17. ↑ Health and Well-Being Among the Non-religious: Atheists, Agnostics, and No Preference Compared with Religious Group Members by Hayward RD, Krause N, Ironson G, Hill PC, Emmons R., Journal of Religion and Health, 2016 Jun;55(3):1024-1037. doi: 10.1007/s10943-015-0179-2.
  18. ↑ Researchers find brain differences between believers and non-believers, Phys.org, March 4, 2009
  19. ↑ Religion can help improve children’s mental health, new study finds, Global News, 2018
  20. ↑ Emotional intelligence
  21. ↑ Divine Emotions: On the Link Between Emotional Intelligence and Religious Belief, Journal of Religion and Health, December 2017, Volume 56, Issue 6, pp 1998–2009
  22. ↑ THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE WITH RELIGIOUS COPING AND GENERAL HEALTH OF STUDENTS by Masoumeh Bagheri Nesami, Amir Hossein Goudarzian, Houman Zarei, Pedram Esameili, Milad Dehghan Pour, and Hesam Mirani, Materia Sociomedica. 2015 Dec; 27(6): 412–416. doi: 10.5455/msm.2015.27.412-416
  23. ↑ Religiosity and perceived emotional intelligence among Christians, Personality and Individual Differences 41(3):479-490 · August 2006, DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2006.01.016
  24. ↑ Study reveals what religion and spirituality may be doing for the brain
  25. ↑ Neuroanatomical Correlates of Religiosity and SpiritualityA Study in Adults at High and Low Familial Risk for Depression, JAMA Psychiatry
  26. ↑ Ask the Brains, Scientific American, Dec 23, 2011
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Multiple references:
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Atheism a cause of suicide; Dr. MacArthur preaches on the sin and cowardice of self-destruction" (September 17, 1894). New York Times, p. 2. Retrieved from nytimes.com on July 24, 2014.
  29. ↑ Phil Zuckerman, Berkley Center website
  30. ↑ Dervic, Kanita, et al. (December 2004). "Religious affiliation and suicide attempt" [summary]. The American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 161:12, pp. 2303-8. Summary retrieved from Adherents.com on July 25, 2014. Website contains link to article at American Journal of Psychiatry website.
  31. ↑ Lonely religious people are less depressed than atheists because they see God as a friend replacement, study finds, Daily Mail, 2018
  32. ↑ Muehlenberg, Bill (May 26, 2008). "The unbearable heaviness of being (in a world without God)". CultureWatch. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  33. ↑ Multiple references:
  34. ↑ Multiple references:
    • Thompson, Angus H. (November–December 2010). "The suicidal process and self-esteem". Crisis, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 311-6. Retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Pub Med on May 23, 2015.
    • Villa-Manzano, A. I. (November–December 2009). "[Risk factors found in suicide attempters]" [abstract]. Revista Médica del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 643-6. Abstract retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  35. ↑ Unruh, Bob (November 20, 2008). "Dad links son's suicide to 'The God Delusion'". WorldNetDaily. Retrieved on February 18, 2015.
  36. ↑ Kilgore, Jesse (December 17, 2008). [Archive of] What Say You? Archive of NewBlog.com. Retrieved from December 17, 2008 archive at Internet Archive on May 23, 2015.
  37. ↑ Multiple references:
  38. ↑ Washington University in St. Louis (November 12, 1998). "Why women are less likely than men to commit suicide". ScienceDaily website. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  39. ↑ Ammi, Ken (June 11, 2009). "Atheism". Creation Ministries International. Retrieved on July 19, 2014.
  40. ↑ https://creation.com/atheism
  41. ↑ cited in Ponzetti, James J., ed. (2003). "Suicide—marital status and the family". International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family (New York: MacMillan), p. 1599. Retrieved from JRank Marriage and Family Encyclopedia/Suicide on May 23, 2015.
  42. ↑ Sengoopta, Chandak (July 1999). "[Review of History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture by George Minois (1999)]". H-Net Humanities and Social Sciences Online/H-Ideas. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  43. ↑ Review of Key Studies on Caring/Volunteering
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Data and statistics" (September 2014 or bef.). Health topics/Disease prevention/Alcohol use. Retrieved from World Health Organization (WHO)/Regional office for Europe on May 23, 2015.
  45. ↑ The Doubled-Edged Sword of Religion and Alcoholism
  46. ↑ Mower, Jane (November 19, 2013). "One in eight deaths of young Australians attributable to alcohol: National Council on Drugs report". Australian Broadcasting Corporation website/News. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Pomerlau, Joceline, et. al. (May–June 2008). "Hazardous alcohol drinking in the former Soviet Union: A cross-sectional study of eight countries". Alcohol and Alcoholism, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 351-9. Retrieved from PubMed.gov on May 23, 2015.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Anderson, Sandra C. and Hibbs, Valerie K. (October 1992). "Alcoholism in the Soviet Union" [first page]. International Social Work, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 441-53 [fee or registration required for full article]. First page retrieved from Sage journals/International Social Work on May 23, 2015.
  49. ↑ Multiple references:
  50. ↑ O'Connell, H. and Lawlor, B.A. (October–December 2005). "Recent alcohol intake and suicidality—a neuropsychological perspective". Irish Journal of Medical Science, vol. 174, no. 4., pp. 51-4
  51. ↑ Smoking cessation fact sheet, National Cancer Institute
  52. ↑ [https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/cancer.html CDCTips From Former Smokers ®Diseases/Conditions Featured in the Campaign Smoking and Cancer], Centers For Disease Control and Prevention
  53. ↑ How smoking causes cancer, Cancer Research, UK
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Multiple references:
  55. ↑ Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Foerderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung [Swiss National Science Foundation] (October 3, 2013). "Believers consume fewer drugs than atheists". Science Daily website/Science News. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  56. ↑ Strength of Religious Faith of Athletes and Nonathletes at Two NCAA Division III Institutions
  57. ↑ Height and Weight May Determine How Long You Can Live—Especially If You're a Woman
  58. ↑ Spirituality and Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior among Latino Men and Women in Massachusetts by Valerie J. Silfee, Christina F. Haughton, Stephenie C. Lemon, Vilma Lora, and Milagros C. Rosal, Ethnicity and Disease. 2017 Winter; 27(1): 3–10. Published online 2017 Jan 19. doi: 10.18865/ed.27.1.3
  59. ↑ Strength of Religious Faith of Athletes and Nonathletes at Two NCAA Division III Institutions
  60. ↑ World Health Organization - Cancer statistics for Europe
  61. ↑ World Health Organization - Cancer statistics for Europe
  62. ↑ Data for cancer frequency by country, World Cancer Research Fund International
  63. ↑ Study: Cancer Patients with Strong Religious or Spiritual Beliefs Report Better Health, American Cancer Society
  64. ↑ Causes of obesity
  65. ↑ https://www.gallup.com/poll/145379/Religious-Americans-Lead-Healthier-Lives.aspx
  66. ↑ A surprising map of where the world’s atheists live, By Max Fisher and Caitlin Dewey, Washington Post, May 23, 2013
  67. ↑ Very Religious Americans Lead Healthier Lives, Gallup Poll, 2010
  68. ↑ Mayo Clinic Staff (May 13, 2014). "Causes [of obesity]". Mayo Clinic website/Diseases and Conditions/Obesity/Basics. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  69. ↑ Multiple references:
  70. ↑ Multiple references:
  71. ↑ Multiple references:
    • McCullough, Michael E. et al. (2000). "Religious involvement and mortality: a meta-analytic review". Health Psychology. vol. 19:3. pp. 211-222. Retrieved from University of Miami, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology website on July 24, 2014.
    • Puchalski, Christina M. (October 2001). "The role of spirituality in health care". Proceedings of the Baylor University Medical Center, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 352–357. Retrieved from National Institutes of Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, PubMed Central website on May 23, 2015.
  72. ↑ Obesity + aging linked to Alzheimer's markers in the brain, Science Daily, June 28, 2018
  73. ↑ Obesity as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: weighing the evidence. by Alford S, Patel D, Perakakis N, Mantzoros CS., Obesity Reviews. 2018 Feb;19(2):269-280. doi: 10.1111/obr.12629. Epub 2017 Oct 10.
  74. ↑ Barford, Vanessa (April 8, 2013). "Is modern life making us more lonely". BBC News website. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  75. ↑ Multiple references:
    • Harmon, Katherine (March 2, 2012). "Why loneliness can be deadly". Live Science website. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
    • Booth, Robert (October 12, 2014). "Number of severely lonely men over 50 set to rise to 1m in 15 years". The Guardian.
  76. ↑ Kevin J. Flannelly et al., "Belief in Life After Death and Mental Health: Findings from a National Survey," The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 194, no. 7 (July 2006): 524-29
  77. ↑ Religious Belief Systems of Persons with High Functioning Autism, Catherine Caldwell-Harris, Caitlin Fox Murphy and Tessa Velazquez at the Department of Psychology - Boston University); Patrick McNamara (Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine)
  78. ↑ Is atheism linked to autism? Controversial study points to relationship between the two, Daily Mail, 20 September 2011
  79. ↑ What atheism and autism may have in common By Razib Khan, September 19, 2011]
  80. ↑ RELIGIOUS PEOPLE LIVE HEALTHIER, LONGER LIVES—WHILE ATHEISTS COLLECT MUTANT GENES, Newsweek, 2017
  81. ↑ [Atheists are more likely to be left handed, study finds], The Telegraph, 2017
  82. ↑ RELIGIOUS PEOPLE LIVE HEALTHIER, LONGER LIVES—WHILE ATHEISTS COLLECT MUTANT GENES, Newsweek, 2017
  83. ↑ [Atheists are more likely to be left handed, study finds], The Telegraph, 2017
  84. ↑ Most atheists are not white & other non-fairy tales By Razib Khanm, Discover Magazine
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 McGrath, Alister (February 28, 2005). "The twilight of atheism". Christianity Today website. Retrieved on May 23, 2015.
  86. ↑ The oral cancer of Sigmund Freud, Clinical Plastic Surgery. 1983 Oct;10(4):709-14.]
  87. ↑ Sigmund Freud: smoking habit, oral cancer and euthanasia by Adeyemo WL. Nigerian Journal of Medicine, 2004 Apr-Jun;13(2):189-95.
  88. ↑ Why is Psychology Silent When it Comes to Atheism? - Dr. Melanie Brewster - Skepticon 7
  89. ↑ Multiple references:
  90. ↑ Palmquist, Stephen (1995). "Chapter 19: Nietzsche's moral breakthrough". The Tree of Philosophy (Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press). Retrieved from Hong Kong Baptist University website on July 25, 2014.
  91. ↑ Salomé, Lou (1988). Nietzsche [preview] (University of Illinois). Translation of Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken (1894) translated by Mandel, Elise and Mandel, Theo S. Preview retrieved from Amazon.com on July 25, 2014.
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