User:Interiot/Reports/Shortpages

CPUSA
Office of Strategic Services
Perlo group

Controversial

Other (Musical instruments)

Grassland steppe of eastern Mongolia near the border with Russia and China. (Photo credit: D. Prosser, USGS)

A steppe is a vast, semi-arid, flat, treeless, short grass plain, similar to a prairie. Its most prominent location on earth is the Great Steppe, covering roughly 5,000 square miles, covering most of central Asia, from Mongolia into Ukraine.

• Glossary

The Epistle to the Hebrews discusses the book in the New Testament, which explains the logic for Jesus.

The Hebrews were God's chosen people. They were the ancestors of the Israelites, who would eventually fulfill the Promise of entering the promised land that God had given to them in covenant with Abraham and later with Jacob. The term was usually used to denote a group based on ethnicity, whereas more modern usage of Jews blurs ethnicity and religion. The Hebrews were expected to follow God as children of the Promise. The term is usually used in the Bible before there was a nation of Israel. It is a common usage in the Exodus^[1][2][3][4] in the Old Testament to describe the descendants of Jacob who were put under bondage in Egypt. The Hebrews, Israelites, also called and known as Jews, at least since the time of Esther.^[5][6][7][8]

• Epistle to the Hebrews
• Synagogue
• Judaism

1. ↑ Exodus 3:18
2. ↑ Exodus 5:3
3. ↑ Exodus 7:16
4. ↑ Exodus 9:1
5. ↑ Book of Esther.
6. ↑ (Jewish calendar - 3,404-405. 355-356 BCE)
7. ↑ What Is the Miracle of Purim?, Kosher.com, March 19, 2019.
8. ↑ What Is Purim?

Teotohuacans

Knave (pronounced neyv) is a medieval term for a journeyman or male servant. The term has come to carry the connotation of a disreputable fellow but also refers to a playing card Jack.

Jeans were originally pants worn at work. They were traditionally made from denim but also from a variety of material including corduroy. Jeans are believed to have developed from 16th century Indian dungarees. Modern jeans were invented for Californian miners in the 1850s by a fellow called Levi Strauss who lived in San Francisco. Today minors and adults across the world wear jeans. They are an enduring symbol of American freedom.

In geology, layers of rock that are distinct.

A Commune is an intentionally planned community of individuals who often share resources and ideology.

Back-actor

A glyph is any character in a writing system. A particular type of glyph is a grapheme, which is the smallest unit in a writing system capable of changing the meaning, such as a letter or punctuation mark.^[1]

See:

• alphabet
• Hieroglyphics
• Chinese character
• Unicode

1. ↑ Definition of grapheme

A Sextant is an instrument used for navigating at sea by sighting on either the sun or a star and determining its elevation above the horizon. It is excellent for determining latitude, but accurate longitude measurements require good timepieces as well, capable of working on ships which pitch and roll on the waves.

A Yeshiva is a Jewish religious school, where Torah and Talmud are taught..

Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Encyclopedia, ca. 1960s

Encyclopedia (Greek: ἐνκύκλιos παιδεία, enkyklios paideia; "circle of instruction") refers to a reference resource giving information on many subjects or on the many aspects of one subject. As such, an encyclopedia is generally a summary, a storehouse of knowledge collected in an alphabetical or thematic way with an objective and universal claim, and not specialized, monothematic or subjective as a treaty or an essay. Encyclopaedia Britannica is among the best known and widely read print encyclopedias, though Wikipedia and Conservapedia are both well-known encyclopedias based on MediaWiki software and hosted on the internet.

Antiquity to Middle Ages

The origins of what was to become the modern encyclopedia began in ancient times. In Sumeria, during the fourth millennium BC, a thematic glossary was written as a first attempt to order or catalog the knowledge of the world, and 600 years later a similar attempt is registered in Ebla following a conventional order of signs. These first attempts are called lexical lists^[1], and were based on a listing of professions, vessels, trees, animals, etc, and written in cuneiform.

In ancient Egypt, there are also thematic lists that can be considered as protoencyclopedias^[2]. The Ramessum Onomasticon^[3][4], written around 1750 BC is a list of words grouped by categories. Another work of the same genre, but much more developed, is the Onomastic of Amenophis^[5][6], made around 1100 BC. It has 610 elements organized in a thematic way and would contain more than 2000 different information with the ambition to create «a systematic catalog of the universe. This distant ancestor of the encyclopedic dictionary would have the task to propose a program of instruction for humanity founded on the organization of the world.

The Greek philosopher Plato (428-348 BC) made a summary of the knowledge of his time in one of his dialogues, the Timaeus^[7], which can be considered a "methodical encyclopedia," covering such subjects as astronomy, cosmology, medicine, and physics. His disciple Aristotle (384-322 BC) produced a large number of treatises^[8] on a wide variety of subjects with a truly encyclopedic spirit and without equivalents in the ancient world (poetics, rhetoric, logic, politics, physics, psychology, biology, ethics, etc.). However, his efforts were not disseminated until some 275 years after his death, towards the year 50 BC. Other early encyclopedic writers were not so fortunate; Democritus^[9] and Posidonius^[10] are among those whose works are largely lost or in fragments.

Among the Romans, the first to attempt to summarize ancient knowledge was Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC), whose Antiquitatum rerum humanarum et divinarum libri XLI^[11] have only endured as fragments and extracts in other later authors and encyclopedists. For Varro, the path to knowledge was the etymology, as it was for the much later Visigoth, St. Isidore of Seville, probably the last to use Varro's work for his own encyclopedia, the Etymologies^[12]. For Varro the term verbum ("word") came from veritas ("truth"), which legitimized that procedure. A work of 41 books, 25 were devoted to human affairs and the rest to the divinity of the pagan gods. The original work disappeared over the years, due to various medieval recasts.

Latin copy of Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia; written in Rome ca. 1460 by Jacopo della Pergola

Towards the beginning of the first century of our era, Aulo Cornelio Celsus wrote De Artibus (ca. 30 BC), an encyclopedia in 26 books which covered subjects of agriculture, war, rhetoric, philosophy, law, and medicine, with this last subject - called De Medicina - having survived to modern times^[13]. A few years later would come one of the best-known works of antiquity, the Naturalis Historia (Natural History) by Pliny the Elder^[14]. He compiled a work of 37 chapters that cover the history of art and architecture, medicine, geography, geology and all aspects of the world around him, releasing it in 77 AD. He stated in his prologue that he had compiled twenty thousand facts from two thousand titles of two hundred different authors, and added that many others came from his own experience.

In his Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights, II century, AD), Aulus Cornelius Gellius (125-180 AD) lectures on numerous subjects of literature, arts, philosophy, history, law, geometry, medicine, natural sciences, meteorology and geography, although with a more essayistic and scholarly spirit than systematic and encyclopedic^[15]. On the other hand, the Polyhistor, the work of the Roman writer Gaius Julius Solinus (d. 400 AD), presents the curiosities of the world by regions^[16]. Although the work has been lost, numerous elements of it, as in the case of Varro, were collected in medieval encyclopedias. At the beginning of the 4th century Nonio Marcello wrote De compendiosa doctrina, a compilation or epitome of treatises on language and various techniques, and arranged alphabetically^[17]. Marciano Capella, a lawyer who lived in Algeria, was the author of De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii ("Weddings of Philology and Mercury"), written between 410 and 420^[18]. This manual in the form of allegorical narration synthesizes in 9 books the knowledge of the time: philology, grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and harmony. It was very popular in Carolingian times, and served as a reference to organize studies in basic education (the Trivium) and higher (the Quadrivium). It was read even in the Renaissance and inspired Copernicus in particular^[19].

Between 1403-1408, on the orders of the Chinese emperor Ghengzu^[20], the Yongle dadian (永樂大典, "great canon of Yongle") was created^[21], and until the advent of Wikipedia, it was the largest encyclopedia in the history of mankind. It included the contents of all books available in the imperial library, including canonical, historical, philosophical, and artistic works. Each section (juan) was a collection of excerpts, sometimes entire chapters or treatises on one general topic, indicated by the character-name of the section. The encyclopedia numbered 22,877 sections, divided into 11,095 volumes. The total volume of the code is about 510,000 pages and 300,000,000 characters. Currently, no more than 400 volumes of this work exist, which are scattered in several museums around the world^[22].

Beginning of the modern era

Margarita Philosophica (Philosophical Pearl)^[23] by Gregor Reisch (1503) was a widely used general encyclopedia, the first such work directly printed from the new printing press, and as such was readily available for student use in universities. Like the later Annales Bojorum (Annals of Bavaria) of Johannes Aventinus (1517)^[24] and the Encyclopaedia Cursus Philosophici by Johann Heinrich Alsted (1630)^[25], the Margarita Philosophica followed a systematic order; like many textbooks of the time it followed the pattern of a dialogue between the student and his teacher^[26]. It was during this period that the word "encyclopedia" was coined, used to describe these and further works of these collected subjects^[27][28].

The Grand Dictionaire Historique (1674)^[29] by Louis Moréri was the first large, national-language, alphabetical reference work for the topics of history, biography and geography. In his tradition stands the peculiar Dictionnaire historique et critique (1696/1697) by Pierre Bayle, which was originally intended to correct and supplement Moréris's work. For rather short articles, Bayle provided a very detailed and critical apparatus of annotations. Since Bayle primarily treated those objects that interested him personally, his work is to be regarded as an ego document, an intellectual autobiography which stood rather beside, and not in place of, a general encyclopedia.

By 1700 biographical and historiographic information, largely missing from earlier works, was added to a new generation of encyclopedias. As dictionaries they also arranged articles alphabetically, breaking with the earlier thematic arrangement. With Antoine Furetière's Dictionnaire universel des arts et sciences (1690)^[30], this new direction began in the history of the encyclopedia, and carried to a a further step, the bridging of the contrast of scientific-philosophical and biographical-historical subjects, such as in the Universal Lexicon (1732-1754) by Johann Heinrich Zedler^[31], a major work published in 68 volumes which was the first encyclopedia containing biographies of living people.

Johnson's New Universal Cyclopedia (1876)

Johann Heinrich Alsted's Encyclopedia was a work in Latin that enjoyed great authority throughout much of Europe during much of the 17th century, but was considered outdated and outmoded when that century ended. New discoveries were made in the sciences, and the thought was given as to how these discoveries should be presented, how they should be understood, and within the covers of reference books how they should be arranged to correlate with one another. Many works were published throughout Europe during the 18th century, but several stand out for the influence they had in not just solving the arrangement, but in making up the modern general encyclopedia.

Chambers Cyclopedia

Ephraim Chambers solved the arrangement problem with his two-volume Cyclopedia (1728)^[32] which, in addition to the alphabetical order, introduced another innovation: internal links from one article to another, prefaced by a scheme of knowledge divided into divisions and subdivisions. The first English-language general encyclopedia, three editions were printed during Chambers' lifetime, and after his death his work was continued: the seventh edition (1753) was accompanied by two supplemental volumes, while in 1778-85 and 1786 the most extensive edition appeared in five volumes.

Encyclopédie

Chambers' work was translated into French and inspired the authors of the most famous encyclopedia of the 18th century, which had such a significant impact on the cultural and political life of Europe on the eve of the French Revolution. The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers^[33] ("Encyclopedia, or Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts") was published from 1751 to 1772, and edited by Denis Diderot and Jean d’Alembert. Though the intent was to translate Chambers' work, the project quickly expanded from an initial 8 volumes to 28, a work that became truly French. The historical significance of this particular encyclopedia is due to the fact that it contained a systematic review of the ideas of the French Enlightenment; indeed, many of the enlighteners themselves, from Jean Jacques Rousseau to Voltaire, had worked on it.

Diderot's views on what an encyclopedia should be were presented to him in an article of the same name. In his opinion, a perfect encyclopedia should be something more than the sum of its components. "An encyclopedia ought to make good the failure to execute such a project hitherto, and should encompass not only the fields already covered by the academies, but each and every branch of human knowledge."^[34] Diderot believed that the encyclopedia should establish links between concepts. Realizing that the whole array of human knowledge could not be presented in one work, he still believed that it was possible to at least show the interdependence between them.

Though it introduced hardly any actual innovations, it was praised for its size, thematic width, systematic underpinning, and the many illustrations - some two thousand five hundred in all - while its competitors had at most a few hundred illustrations. Nevertheless, she was less successful and influential than often assumed; because of the sheer size of the work, it reached relatively few readers, compared for example with the widespread and repeatedly relaunched Cyclopaedia. Although French in origin, there is considerable evidence to suggest that its creation had been influenced by the British, in particular the philosophy of Chancellor Francis Bacon.^[35]

Above all, it applies with its critical and secular attitude as a jewel of the Enlightenment, the pan-European educational offensive. Attacks by the church and difficulties with censorship overshadowed their emergence as well as later disputes between the editors Diderot and d'Alembert. Diderot and many of his co-authors at various points in the Encyclopédie brought criticism against certain ideas in the ruling society. As such, the work was the product of many Encyclopedists' achievements, but it was ultimately completed only thanks to the intervention of Louis de Jaucourt, who even hired secretaries at his own expense. As such, there was also evidence to suggest the Encyclopédistes wrote it specifically as a means to subtly demean and ultimately destroy Christianity.^{[36][37][38][39]} In the last ten volumes, which he wrote mostly himself, there are fewer polemical sites than in the first seven, which could make them less interesting for today's readers.

Encyclopædia Britannica

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition (1974-2012)

The Encyclopédie in turn inspired the Encyclopædia Britannica, which had modest beginnings in Edinburgh: two Scotsman, Andrew Bell and Colin Macfarquhar conceived the idea of publishing their own version the first edition, distributed between 1768 and 1771, was composed of just three volumes hastily completed - A-B, C-L and M-Z - for a total of 2659 pages. In 1797, when the third edition was completed, it had been expanded to 18 volumes dealing with a wide range of subjects, with entries provided by a set of authorities in their field.

Encyclopædia Britannica went through eleven editions before its publishing headquarters was moved from London to Chicago; the 1911 work is regarded as among the finest encyclopedias ever printed. A 28-volume fifteenth edition was published in 1974 in which the format of the encyclopedia was divided into three major sections: the Micropædia: Ready Reference and Index, which presented the basic, general information normally found; the Macropædia: Knowledge in Depth, which presented many articles in great detail; and the Propædia: Outline of Knowledge, the guide to the encyclopedia as a whole with its thematic connections as well as an index to the contributers^[40]. By 2012 it had expanded to 32 volumes.

Brockhaus Enzyklopädie

Brockhaus Conversations-Lexikon, first edition (1796-1808)

The Brockhaus Conversations-Lexikon was published in Leipzig, Germany from 1796 to 1808 in 6 volumes. Parallel to other 18th-century encyclopedias, the scope was expanded beyond that of previous publications, in an effort to be all-encompassing. But the work was not intended for scientific use, but to disseminate the results of research and discoveries in a simple and popular form without excessive detail. This format, in contrast to that of Encyclopædia Britannica, was widely imitated by successive nineteenth-century encyclopedias in Great Britain, the United States, France, Spain, Italy and other countries. Of the encyclopedias that had a certain influence between the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, the Brockhaus Enzyklopädie is perhaps the most similar in form to modern encyclopedias, and would literally be the basis for the following works:

Chambers' Encyclopedia

Unrelated to the author of the original Cyclopedia, William and Robert Chambers of Edinburgh used an English translation of Brockhaus as the basis for the well-regarded Chambers' Encyclopedia, and was released between 1860 and 1868 in ten volumes, for a total of 8,283 pages. A revised edition was published in 1874, with 8,320 pages. The articles were generally excellent, especially in Jewish literature, folklore and applied science but, as in Brockhaus, the scope of the work did not allow for a prolonged discussion. A completely new edition was published in ten volumes from 1888 to 1892, edited by David Patrick. Further new editions came out in 1895, 1901 and 1906. A modern Chambers' was published in 15 volumes in 1950 by George Newnes.

Encyclopedia Americana

German-American lawyer and political scientist Francis Lieber would take the seventh edition of the Brockhaus Conversations-Lexikon and use it for the 13-volume Encyclopedia Americana (1820), which would eventually become the second-largest printed universal lexicon in the English language after the Encyclopædia Britannica. As the name implies, it is primarily focused on North America, with coverage of American and Canadian history and geography particularly extensive.

The 175th-anniversary edition of 2004 contains 45,000 articles with 25 million words and was written with the participation of 6500 authors. It contains 9,000 bibliographies, 150,000 cross-references, over 1,000 tables, 1,200 maps and nearly 4,500 black and white and color photographs. Since 1923, The Americana Annual has been published as a yearbook to update the set.

Funk & Wagnalls

New York-based publisher Funk & Wagnalls was originally founded in 1875, publishing exclusively religious books until the publication of The Literary Digest in 1890, marks the move to specializing in dictionaries and encyclopedias. In 1894 they published its most memorable publication, The Standard Dictionary of the English Language. In 1912 Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia was launched, based on an edition of Chambers' Encyclopedia. In 1965, the company was acquired by Reader's Digest Association and again by Dun & Bradstreet. In subsequent years, the company sold its publishing rights to other companies.

The claim to fame that Funk & Wagnalls had became a part of popular culture, as it was named repeatedly in skits on television's Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In and The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson during the later part of the 20th century. It was also sold by the volume in grocery stores, with shoppers adding to their personal sets every week^[41].

Collier's Encyclopedia

Peter F. Collier was a magazine publisher at the end of the 19th century, having made a fortune with his Collier's Weekly magazine; his publications were known for the excellence of their articles, illustrations, and in many cases the investigative journalism exposing corruption and fraud in high places^[42]. Collier's publishing empire had previously printed and sold Chamber's Encyclopedia in the 1890s, and in 1902 Collier released his own encyclopedia, which over the years would expand its base by being sold door-to-door, with the affordability of paying for and receiving one to two volumes per month. Meant for high school and college students, it had 20 volumes by 1950; by the time it finished its run in 1997 it had 24 volumes with over 23,000 entries. The quality of the writing - it had an extensive list of well-known, credentialed authors in its bibliography, and many of its articles were signed - placed Collier's Encyclopedia alongside Encyclopedia Americana and Encyclopædia Britannica as one of the great English language general encyclopedias of the 20th century.

The New Book of Knowledge and World Book, at the Lincoln Park Public Library, Lincoln Park, Michigan

It was realized early on that young people from elementary to high school age benefited from encyclopedias, and the fact that they could be written to their levels of understanding did not escape the notice of the publishers. The Book of Knowledge was published by the Grolier Society in 1910, a 24-volume set arranged by topic rather than alphabetically; it would be replaced by the 20-volume The New Book of Knowledge in 1966, rearranged back to alphabetically.

Other publishers would have their versions printed within a very short time. Compton's Encyclopedia, a 26-volume work first printed in 1922, had the innovation of a "fact index" in each volume, giving bullet information on subjects not treated elsewhere in the set. Grolier also published the Merit Student's Encyclopedia (1967) and the Academic American Encyclopedia (1980), with all three meant for junior and senior high school students. Britannica got into the act as well, publishing Britannica Junior Encyclopedia in 1934, a work in 15 volumes written for elementary school students.

By far the most famous of these sets, as well as the best-selling American encyclopedia of any kind, is World Book Encyclopedia, first published in 1918 with 15 volumes, with an expansion to 22 volumes today. Unlike many other encyclopedias, World Book is published in volumes that are not uniform from the point of view of length, since each volume covers a specific letter of the alphabet. The exceptions are C and S which, due to their length are divided into two volumes, while single volumes represent the letters J-K, N-O, Q-R, U-V, and W to Z. World Book has a total of 14,300 pages, including about 27,500 photographs or illustrations, with many in color; over 3,800 editors helped write the articles. In the first volume the complete list of the main authors and consultants is given, with a synthetic profile and the topics they dealt with. At the end of most of the entries the name of the author is indicated.

Unlike the general encyclopedia, the specialized encyclopedia covers a specific topic or subject, and often going into great detail not normally covered by a general encyclopedia. Appearing in the second half of the 20th century, these works were published in single or multi-volumes, and were usually sold in bookstores, though several, such as the various series by Time-Life, were sold via subscription. The subjects themselves were were enormously-varied, covering nations, history, wildlife, religion, photography, science, and so on, of which a few examples are mentioned below:

• The Encyclopedia of Photography (1970)^[43]
• Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land (1972), by Shimon Gibson^[44]
• The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile (2000) by G. N. Georgano and Nick Georgano^[45]
• Popular Mechanics Do-it-yourself Encyclopedia (1955)^[46]
• Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia (English translation, 1972-75) by Bernhard Grzimek^[47]

The majority of printed encyclopedias ceased publication^[48] by the second decade of the 21st century, with the most notable being Encyclopædia Britannica in 2012 after a run of more than 200 years; its entire content is now available online^[49] via subscription, or on DVDs for home computers. Brockhaus Enzyklopädie also ceased publishing in 2008 after a similar, two-century run, with a digital run lasting six more years. Collier's Encyclopedia stopped publishing in 1997, the contents of which were used for a time by Microsoft in its version of a digital encyclopedia named Encarta. Encyclopedia Americana stopped in 2006, leaving the only other major American encyclopedia, World Book, still being printed as of 2019^[50].

The reason for the demise was the availability of the internet as a source of information, and the creation of freely-accessible online encyclopedias. On March 9, 2000, the Nupedia project was launched. From the very beginning, Nupedia adhered to the principles of a free encyclopedia, using the Nupedia Open Content License first, and then moving to the GNU FDL in early 2001 at the request of Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation. After changing the Nupedia license to GFDL, a text appeared on their website^[51] about the decision to combine the GNUpedia (the original, Linux-system based name) and Nupedia projects and urging visitors to GNU.org to contribute to the free encyclopedia. Instead of "open content encyclopaedia", Nupedia received the slogan "free encyclopedia", which was later inherited by Wikipedia. But despite the status of a free encyclopedia, Nupedia was not a wiki site, and writing texts was allowed only to certified specialists after the approval of the preliminary application.

Despite the great resonance and interest in the project, only 2 articles were written in six months and Nupedia never became a successful project. In order to speed up the process of replenishing Nupedia with articles, Wikipedia was opened on January 15, 2001, and was powered by the Mediawiki program. In the early months of Wikipedia, success was amazing; Wikipedia attracted new participants, as well as Nupedia participants who switched to the new project. Soon, Wikipedia began to function completely independent of Nupedia. Supporters of GNUPedia and the Free Software Foundation liked Wikipedia, who were opposed to article checking and were very worried about bureaucracy. Nupedia was closed on September 26, 2003, its articles were moved to Wikipedia. By the time of the closure, 2.5 years after the start of work, Nupedia had only 24 ready-made articles and more than 74 unfinished articles.

The disadvantages generated by Wikipedia, however, is not accessibility for destructive influences (trolling, vandalism, etc), but internal inconsistency; few articles are linked to others in what would normally be a thematic flow that made Britannica and others decisive in their works. Lack of competent, credible authorship is also a major factor; unlike printed encyclopedias, the vast majority of articles in Wikipedia are written by amateurs with little to no expertise in the fields that they are writing about, with some of these writers being in the news for the scandals they have created^{[52][53][54][55]}.

• Kister's Best Encyclopedias

Dayton is a city in southwest Ohio.^[1] It is home to Wright Patterson Air Force Base^[2] and the Air Force Museum.^[3] In 2014, the population was 141,003.^[4]

• Cincinnati
• Dayton nightclub shooting

• [5] The Official Website of Dayton, Ohio

A manor was a self-sufficient feudal estate.

• Middle Ages
• Carolingian Renaissance
• Feudalism

Interiot/Reports/Shortpages has more than one meaning. As such, this article is merely a disambiguation page, listing articles associated with Interiot/Reports/Shortpages.

If you were linked to this page from another article, feel free to edit that article to make it point at the correct entry.

• Khufu
• Minoan Civilization
• Ur

Caravanserais are inns built to accommodate caravans. They are usually constructed outside the walls of cities. On the first floor, they offer plenty of open space where a camel caravan may reside for the night. On the second floor, they offer smaller rooms in which the people may stay. Unlike Khans, these do not offer any food or other paid comforts. They are simply spaces to reside safely for the night.^[1]

A monastic title used during the middle ages.

Legitimacy is the authority of a ruler, as in the case of a monarchy or democratically elected ruler.

Gulf of Mexico's sea

A sea is a body of water but not as large as an ocean. Could be used colloquially as synonymous of ocean. Also large lakes could be referred to as inland seas.

Some of the most important seas in the world are: The Gulf of Mexico, The Caribbean Sea, The Gulf of California, The North Sea, The Baltic Sea, The Mediterranean Sea, The Adriatic Sea, The Red Sea, The Arabian Sea, The Persian Gulf, The Dead Sea, The Black Sea, The Sea of Japan and The Philippine Sea.

Atlantic Ocean

Arctic Ocean

Indian Ocean

Pacific Ocean

Southern Ocean

1. ↑ Deep sea waters

• After the Sea-Ship Walt Whitman (1819–1892). Leaves of Grass. 1900.
• Glossary

The brother of one of a child's parents.

During the Middle Ages and early renaissance, corrupt Popes would often euphemistically claim to be the uncles of people who were in fact their illegitimate children. This is the origin of the term nepotism.

The Kingdom of Kush flourished from about the 8th century B.C. to about A.D.350-400. It occupied both sides of the River Nile from about the “First Cataract” (Aswan) to the seventh near Khartoum in modern Sudan. This area, referred to in history books as Upper Nubia and known as Kush by the Egyptians, and ruled by Nubians, found itself under the rule of the kings from Egypt – Nubians who had formed the 25th Dynasty in Egypt in 770 B.C. but who had evacuated Egypt in 661 B.C. in the face of the Assyrian invasion – who continued to rule an “egyptianised” kingdom in Nubia.

Their palaces and burial pyramids, copied from Egypt, and the famous temple of the sun, mentioned by Herodotus, have been excavated. The kingdom went through stages of prosperity and stress (a Roman attack which destroyed the city of Napata in 23B.C. is recorded) before falling into terminal degeneration during its last two or so centuries. It went out of existence as an independent state after an attack by Axum (a powerful Ethiopian kingdom) in A.D. 350.

We are fortunate to be able to translate Kushite inscriptions and know the names of their later rulers from the existence of their Meriotic script, developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, and used parallel to it for some time.

Objectivity is the basing of knowledge on empirical, observable data without applying personal preconceptions or experience. No human being is completely objective, although many come closer than others. Science is often assumed to be objective, yet this claim has been challenged by a range of groups, such as philosophers^[1] psychologists,^[2] historians, and sociologists of science.^[3]

• Self-distancing

1. ↑ Trowbridge, B. Understanding the concept of reality; Helium, (n.d.) [1]
2. ↑ Malson, H. The thin woman: feminism, post-structuralism, and the social psychology of anorexia nervosa; Routledge; London. p. 35, (1998) [2]
3. ↑ Richards, E. "Will the Real Charles Darwin Please Stand Up?" in New Scientist; Reed Business Information; London. p. 887, (22-29 December 1983) [3]

• Credibility

Hugh Capet (c. 938 - 996) ruled 987–996, was the first of the Capetian kings of France.

He was the son of Hugh the Great (d. 956), count of Paris, he intrigued against the Carolingian king Lothair (r. 954–86) and on the death (987) of Lothair's son, Louis V, was elected king by the magnates. He then had to contend with Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, the legitimate Carolingian claimant who had been passed over. Charles was finally imprisoned in 991. To ensure the succession, Hugh made his son Robert II (d. 1031) joint sovereign.

The Capetian kings increased their power between 987 and 1328 relative to other nobles, and weakened the feudal system.

• Fawtier, Robert. Capetian Kings of France (1960)

Warning: Default sort key "Capet, Hugh" overrides earlier default sort key "Hanover, Donna".

A Venn diagram picturing the traditional definition of knowledge as justified true belief (That is represented by the yellow circle).

Belief is a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values/facts. A person's beliefs help determine his worldview.

Belief is weaker than faith. While both are based in part on logic or evidence, faith goes beyond belief in realizing the unseen and achieving good based on it. "You believe that God is one; you do well. Even the demons believe—and shudder." James 2:19.

See also: Epistemology

Epistemology is the analysis of the nature of knowledge, how we know, what we can and cannot know, and how we can know that there are things we know we cannot know. In other words, it is the academic term associated with study of how we conclude that certain things are true.^[1]

Traditional View of Knowledge

See also: Knowledge

Knowledge is the sum of what is known.

Philosophical tradition going back as far as Plato characterises a proposition as known where it is, at a minimum:

1) Believed

2) That belief is "justified" and

3) it is true.

Most modern epistemology concerns itself with two problems, the adequacy of that definition and analysis of what it means for a belief to be "justified".

Scientific knowledge and falsifiability

See also: falsifiable

A concept is falsifiable if it is possible to show that it is false if it were false.^[2] A concept that could not possibly be shown to be false, even if it were false, is not falsifiable.

To be considered scientific, a hypothesis must be "falsifiable", i.e., capable of being proven false. If no one, not even the supporters of the hypothesis, can think of a way the hypothesis might be proven false, then most scientists would agree that it is not part of science (see pseudoscience). However, the history of science is full of examples whereby supporters of various theories refused to consider the prospect that someone might prove them wrong.

See also: Mindset

• Beliefs Drive Behaviors

• The 5 most powerful self-beliefs that ignite human behavior by Bobby Hoffman, PhD

• Need Your Team To Perform? Start With Belief, Forbes, 2020

• How Beliefs are Formed and How to Change Them

• Knowledge, Belief, and Action, Chapter 5 of the 2020 book Seeing, Knowing, and Doing: A Perceptualist Account by Robert Audi, Oxford Academic website

• How your beliefs shape your actions

• Beliefs and Emotions Lead to Actions and Results, Coaching For Influence website

• How Beliefs Affect Mindset, Henman Performance Group website

Videos on the power of belief and on beliefs driving behavior:

• Videos on the power of belief and on beliefs driving behavior - Video playlist

See also: ABC Theory of Emotion

VeryWellHealth.com indicates in their article How the ABC Model Works in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy indicates: "The ABC (adversity, behavior, consequences) model is one of the main parts of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The ABC model is based on the idea that emotions and behaviors are not determined by external events but by our beliefs about them."^[3]

The Decision Labs article The ABC Model indicates:

See also: Intellectual humility

Intellectual humility can be understood as "involving the owning of one’s cognitive limitations, a healthy recognition of one’s intellectual debts to others, and low concern for intellectual domination and certain kinds of social status. It is closely allied with traits such as open-mindedness, a sense of one’s fallibility, and being responsive to reasons."^[5] Intellectual humility also involves having a recognition that there are gaps in one’s knowledge and that some of one’s current beliefs might be incorrect.^[6]

• Knowledge
• Epistemology
• Worldview

• The Importance of Beliefs in Human Life: Shaping Identity, Community, Well-Being, and Worldview

1. ↑ "1", A Christian's Guide to Critical Thinking. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 336. ISBN 1-59752-661-4. Retrieved on 16.2.2012. 
2. ↑ Definition A Dictionary of Psychology, Andrew M. Colman, via encyclopedia.com
3. ↑ How the ABC Model Works in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, VeryWellHealth.com
4. ↑ The ABC Model, Decision Labs website
5. ↑ What is Intectual Humility. Humility & Conviction in Public Life, University of Connecticut
6. ↑ Predictors and consequences of intellectual humility, Nature Reviews Psychology. 2022; 1(9): 524–536. Published online 2022 Jun 27. doi: 10.1038/s44159-022-00081-9

The head is the top of the human body containing the brain, mouth, eyes, and other sensory organs. It is connected to the rest of the body by the neck. The human head contains 22 bones, consisting the cranium and the facial bones. The cranium is formed by 8 bones: the frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, the occipital bone in the back, the ethmoid bone behind the nose, and the sphenoid bone. The face consists of 14 bones including the maxilla (upper jaw) and mandible (lower jaw).

The now-discredited study of the influence of head shape on intelligence is known as phrenology.

Head was a movie starring the Monkees.

Head is the nautical term for toilet.

Head is the foamy portion of a glass of beer.

Head is the side of a coin with a head on it (the tail is the other side).

A table is flat surface. In the furniture industry, tables are supported by 3 or more legs. Tables are built, and used, for many purposes; many are designed as a place setting for meals, while others are built specifically for medical examinations or procedures.

Tables have been built since Biblical times, and are featured prominently in many legends. Many versions of the King Arthur stories mention a round table in Arthur's court.

The masterfully designed and crafted table, known as the Catherine Goddard Chippendale Block-and-Shell Carved and Figured Mahogany Bureau Table, is attributed to the Newport, Rhode Island cabinetmaker John Goddard (1724-1785).

Politics Discussions

A diagram showing the CNS:
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
5. Cerebellum
6. Spinal cord

The central nervous system (CNS) in its most simple divisions consists of all nervous tissue in the spinal cord and the brain. It is the largest division of the nervous system and has primary control over all organism behavior. Much of our understanding of the central nervous system stems from the computational theory of mind. In modern cognitive psychology and neuroscience the CNS is viewed as an information processing system similar to a modern computer. It is theorized that all thought, conscious and unconsciousness, as well as all behavior is controlled by the same underlying hardware of neurons. The CNS is also viewed as being inherently modular with specific functions being localized to specific areas.

The central nervous system is divided into seven major divisions. The first is the spinal cord which integrates with the brain stem and runs down the center of the vertebrate column. The brain itself is composed of six regions the medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, and the cerebral hemispheres (sometimes referred to as telencephalon). Each of these regions can be further subdivided into many anatomically and functionally distinct areas.

The central nervous system is covered by three tissue layers called the meninges. The three meninges tissues are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the thickest and toughest tissue and the outermost layer. It is primarily thought to serve as a protection layer for the underlying nervous tissue. The arachnoid mater is connected loosely to the dura mater. There is a space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater called the subdural space. The pia mater is a very thin and delicate layer of tissue that adheres to the surface of the nervous tissue. The space between the archnoid mater and the pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. Arachnoid mater filaments pass through this space giving a web like appearance to the area (hence the term arachnoid).

Beyond protection the meninges tissue is also important for the circulatory health of the central nervous system. The veins and arteries that serve the CNS are located in the subarachnoid space. There are also large, low-pressure blood vessels that serve as the return path for cerebral venous blood located in the dura mater.

The CNS contains several cavities called the ventrical system. Tissue surrounding the ventrical system is the primary producer of cerebrospinal fluid which surrounds the CNS providing a medium for communication between neurons and as a cushion in case of trauma.

Neurons and axons are distributed non-uniformly through the CNS. The cell body and dendrites of the neurons cluster in cortical regions which are essentially flattened sheets of cells called laminae. These areas are located primarily on the cerebral hemispheres or in areas beneath the surface of all the sub-divisions of the CNS called nuclei. Axons are then distributed through out the system in regions called tracts. In live tissue the regions populated by cell bodies and dendrites appear gray while the tract's of axons appear white due to myelin sheaths. These areas are called gray matter and white matter respectively.

The spinal cord is the primary tract for sensory information coming in from the periphery to the brain and voluntary muscle control signals moving from the brain to the periphery. Information traveling to the brain moves through a series of axons called the afferent nerves and information traveling to the periphery move through axons called the efferent nerves. The spinal cord can also help processes and integrate sensory information before passing it on. In a few cases it can receive input and coordinate behavioral responses without ever recruiting the brain, these behaviors are commonly called reflexes.

The spinal cord is segmental with the overall organization being modular, all the segments are the same basic structure repeated in tandem. Each segment has a pair of nerves, the dorsal root and the ventral root. The dorsal root contains only the sensory, afferent axons. The ventral root contains the motor, or efferent axons.

The medulla, pons and midbrain comprise what is commonly called the brain stem. The primary functions assigned to the brain stem include receiving sensory information from cranial structures and controlling the muscles of the head. The brain stem also is the major conduit for information coming into and out of the brain. Finally, the brain stem is the primary integrator and controller of many arousal and basic functions. The main function of the cerebellum appears to be to regulate eye and limb movements. Also it maintains posture and balance.

The diencephalon is divided into the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus serves to integrate sensory information and pass it on to the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus receives and integrates information from the autonomic system and controls the endocrine system as well.

The cerebral hemisphere is a highly developed and complex structure. Its divided into four major sections: cerebral cortex, hippocampal formation, amygdala, and the basal ganglia. Most behavior that is viewed as uniquely human is controlled by these four structures.

The hippocampal formation is primarily used in memory and learning, the amygdala controls emotion and the organisms response to stress. Together with some parts of the brain stem these structures make up the limbic system which plays a very large role in mood and psychological dysfunctions. The basal ganglia is important in movement and muscle control, it is the area of the brain that is damaged with Parkinson's Disease. It is also important in cognition and emotion and seems to be a key area involved in addiction.

The cerebral cortex is located on the surface of the brain and has a highly complex three dimensional structure of convoluted nervous tissue. It is essentially a long sheet that has been folded up again and again. These folds are thought to be an adaptation to squeezing in large amounts of nervous tissue in the limited space of the cranial skull. These folds create a wave pattern with the elevated portion of the tissue being called gyri and the separations between called sulci. Some sulci are particularly deep and called fissures. The two hemispheres of the brain are separated by a large fissure called the sagittal fissure. The hemispheres are connected by a structure called the corpus callosum.

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the occipital lobe. The names for these lobes correspond to the cranial bones that overlie them. The frontal lobe is primarily involved in planning, speech, cognition and emotions. The parietal lobe is involved in perceptions of touch, pain and limb position. The occipital lobe has almost the singular function of decoding visual information and is the site of the primary visual cortex. The temporal lobe controls memory, emotion and various sensory functions.

Vertebrate embryos form three primary layers of tissue. The ectoderm (outermost layer), mesoderm (middle layer) and endoderm (inner most layer). The nervous tissue is formed from a region of the ectoderm called the neural plate. The formation of the nervous system is triggered by signaling molecules that come from the mesoderm. This process is called neural induction.

The neural plate runs along the midline of the embryo. Cell division is disproportionately prolific along the midline which forms a grove called the neural grove. This grove deepens and eventually closes forming a hollow tube called the neural tube. Early in development portions at the top of the neural tube swell up forming three hollow vesicles referred to as the prosencephalon, the mesencephalon and the rhombencephalon. Below these swellings the neural tube does not change much and will become the spinal cord.

The prosencephalon swelling later develops two secondary vesicles which form the cerebral hemisphere and the diencephalon. The mesencephalon does not divide further and forms the midbrain. The rhombencephalon forms two more swellings the metencephalon which forms the pons and cerebellum and the myelencephalon which forms the medulla.

These five vesicles and the spinal cord are present by the fifth week of development in humans and make up all seven subdivisions of the central nervous system.

• Pylyshyn, Z; Demopoulos, W (2007). Meaning and Cognitive Structure: Issues in the Computational Theory of Mind (Theoretical Issues in Cognitive Science).

• Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000). Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6.

• Martin, JH (2003). Neuroanatomy text and atlas 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.

• Sanes, Reh, Harris (2005). Development of the Nervous System, 2nd edition. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-618621-9

• Hendelman, WJ. (2000). Atlas of functional neuroanatomy. Florida:CRC Press.

Has

Science Discussion

Homicide is the killing of one human being by another human being.

Although the term homicide is sometimes used synonymously with murder, homicide is broader in scope than murder. Murder is a form of criminal homicide; other forms of homicide might not constitute criminal acts. These homicides are regarded as justified or excusable. For example, individuals may, in a necessary act of Self-Defense, kill a person who threatens them with death or serious injury, or they may be commanded or authorized by law to kill a person who is a member of an enemy force or who has committed a serious crime. Typically, the circumstances surrounding a killing determine whether it is criminal. The intent of the killer usually determines whether a criminal homicide is classified as murder or Manslaughter and at what degree.^[1]

Domestic violence homicide accounts for about 15% of all homicides, with about 14% being stranger-on-stranger. About one-third of the victims were acquaintances of the assailant, with the remainder of cases the relationship between victim and offender undetermined.

Men are far more likely to kill other men than they are to kill women, though women are over twice as likely to kill men as they are to kill other women. Because men do the lion’s share (89.6%) of the murdering, this works out to 32.6% of homicides involving an offender and victim of opposite sex and 67.4% involving people of the same sex.

Murder, like most violent crime in general, is intraracial. Interracial murder represents 15.7% of all homicide. Some 84.3% of all murderers and murder victims are of the same race, broadly defined. The FBI breaks offenders and victims down into three racial categories—White, Black, and Other. Most Hispanics are consequently included in the White figures while Asians, American Indians, and people of mixed race are amalgamated into the Other category.

While whites (including many Hispanics) constitute 76% of the United States population, they perpetrate just 31% of the interracial homicide that takes place within its borders.

A blizzard is a snowstorm of great intensity, similar to a whiteout.

Pajamas (also spelt pyjamas) are loose clothing worn for sleeping comfortably.